{"@context":"http://iiif.io/api/presentation/3/context.json","id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/iiif/862b854w14/manifest","type":"Manifest","label":{"en":["Neuhaus, Leo"]},"logo":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/082/original/TheBreman_SecondaryMark_Horizontal_Blue_Black.png?1713640889","metadata":[{"label":{"en":["Date"]},"value":{"en":["1983-03-01 (created)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Agent"]},"value":{"en":["Leo Neuhaus (Interviewee)","Bella Neuhaus (Interviewee)","Enoch Goodfriend (Interviewer)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Language"]},"value":{"en":["English (primary)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Description"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eLeo Neuhaus and Bella Neuhaus are interviewed by Enoch Goodfriend in Atlanta, Georgia on March 1, 1983.\u003c/p\u003e (general)","\u003cp\u003eLeo reminisces about his family, education, and youth in Leczyca, Poland. He remembers pre-war antisemitism and relationships with non-Jews. Leo recollects the start of the war. He describes how life changed when the Germans occupied Leczyca. He recalls his family losing their home and his father being arrested. Leo talks about his brief escape to the Russian occupied Poland and why he returned home. He mentions life in the ghetto. Leo details working on the Autobahn in a forced labor camp outside Poznan. He recounts his experiences in the Lichow, Zehaufen, and Buchenhof labor camps. Leo describes his arrival in Auschwitz-Birkenau, the living conditions, and the punishments. He explains his transfer to and work in the Jaworzno concentration camp. Leo recounts a brutal beating he endured. He talks about being sent on a death march. Leo explains how he escaped into a forest and was liberated by Russians. He reflects on prisoners’ lives in the camps. Leo mentions killing a German after the war. He details his recovery from starvation and disease. Leo talks about settling in Lodz while he searched for his family. He describes what he witnessed when he visited Chelmno. Leo shares his thoughts on reparations. He explains why he will not visit camps but has returned to Europe. Leo outlines his experience testifying at trial for SS guards in Germany. He expresses his belief in the importance of Israel.\u003c/p\u003e (scope content)","\u003cp\u003eLeo (Luzer) Neuhaus was born in Leczyca [Polish: Łęczyca], Poland on January 22, 1921. He was the oldest child born to Yehoshua and Reina Leya (Khabenski) Neuhaus (both b. 1895). Leo had one younger sister, Nechah (b. 1925), and two younger brothers: Mendel (b.1929) and Reuven (b. 1932). As a child, Leo enjoyed a comfortable, upper class life. He attended public school and cheder. He then completed two years of a business administration program before war broke out in 1939.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eWhen the Germans invaded Poland, a bomb destroyed the family’s home. They found shelter in one room of a building in the poorer part of the city, which soon became a ghetto. Leo had fled Leczyca for the Soviet occupied part of Poland, but without food and under threat of conscription, he soon returned to Leczyca. His father was among a group of 50 Jews arrested by the Germans and ransomed for an exorbitant price. For the next few months, the family endured more and more restrictions as life in the ghetto became increasingly difficult.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eIn August 1940, Leo was selected for forced labor. He was taken along with 300 other young Jewish men from Leczyca to Lodz. From Lodz, he was sent with a group of 50 to a labor camp outside Poznan. There, they worked on the Autobahn. As construction progressed, every few months, the group was moved to another small labor camp. Then, in 1943, Leo was sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where he endured working and living conditions. At one point, his work detail was punished for a miscommunication. In the cold of winter, they were forced to stand for hours in roll call and then go to work without shoes or jackets. When the opportunity came to leave Auschwitz-Birkenau, Leo volunteered. At the end of 1943, he was sent to the Jaworzno/Neu-Dachs subcamp to work in the coal mines. In Jaworzno, Leo witnessed even greater brutality and was severely beaten by a guard. \u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eIn January 1945, Jaworzno was evacuated. Leo and the other prisoners were sent on a death march. Thousands died along the way. Eventually, Leo and three others managed to escape into the forest and were liberated by the Russian army. After briefly recovering from starvation and illness, Leo made his way to Lodz. In Lodz, he stayed with cousins who had also survived. He soon learned his entire family had been killed in the Chelmno extermination camp in 1943. Finding no other surviving family, Leo left Poland.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eIn December 1945, Leo settled in Munich, Germany. There, he met another survivor, Bella Lan (1923-1988), who was from Kovno, Poland. On March 8, 1947, Leo and Bella were married. Leo made a living selling nylon stockings until their American visas were approved. On April 20, 1951, Leo and Bella arrived in New York City, New York aboard the USNS General Sturgis. Leo and Bella settled in Baltimore, Maryland near her family. Then, in 1955, they moved to Atlanta, Georgia and opened a grocery store. Leo was a member of the Associated Grocers Co-op and later went into business with real estate developer and fellow survivor Marty Storch. In 1959, Bella and Leo’s only child, a son they named Sidney, was born. In Atlanta, Leo became a member of Eternal Life-Hemshech and Congregation Shearith Israel. Leo enjoyed travelling to Israel. In 1978, he also travelled to Germany to testify against former guards at the Jaworznoconcentration camp. Leo passed away on November 28, 1986.\u003c/p\u003e (bioghist)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Source Metadata URI"]},"value":{"en":["https://archivesspace.thebreman.org/repositories/2/archival_objects/29243"]}},{"label":{"en":["Rights Statement"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, recorded by any information storage and retrieval system, without the express written consent of the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum.\u003c/p\u003e"]}},{"label":{"en":["Keyword"]},"value":{"en":["yeshiva; Cheder; public school; business administration school; Abuse; Allies; American Army; American zone of occupation; angel of death; Anti-Jewish laws; Anti-Jewish regulations; Antisemitism; Antisemitism – Prewar; Antisemitism – Postwar; Atlanta, Georgia; Appell; Appellplatz; Aufgaben Kommandant; ausplatz kommando; Autobahn; Baltimore, Maryland; bar mitzvah; Barrack; Barterting; bausteller; Beatings; bekleidung kommando; Bella Lan Neuhaus; Bialystok, Poland; Black Market; blood sausage; Blutwurst; Bombing; Bombing raids; capture; Childbirth in concentration camps; Childbirth in Jewish ghettos; Christmas trees; Coal mine; Coalmine; Collaborators; Cologne, Germany; Communist ; Concentration Camp; Concentration Camp (Dachau); Concentration Camp (Blechhammer); Concentration camp inmates – Escapes; Concentration camp inmates; Concentration camps – Sociological aspects; Concentration camps – Hospitals; Concentration camps – Inmate relationships; Concentration camps – medical experiments; Concentration Camps—Religious life and customs; confiscation; Conscription; Conservative Judaism; Cousin; crematorium; D-Day; Daven; Death march; dental care; Department of Housing; Displaced Persons; DP camp; Dusseldorf, Germany; electric wire; England; English Army; Escape; Eternal Life-Hemshech; Europe; Evacuation; Execution; Extermination Camp; Extermination camp (Auschwitz-Birkenau); Extermination camp (Chelmno); Faith; Fasting; Fear; Fleeing; Food; Forced labor; Forced Labor camp; Forced march; Forest; France; Future; Gas chambers; German Occupation; German Army German convicts, killers, politicians; German Kommandant Fuhrer; Germany; Ghetto; Ghetto Administration – Judenrat; Ghetto Administration – Jewish Council; Gleiwitz, Poland; gold; Guards; Hamburg, Germany; Hamon; Hanging; Non-Jews—Victims; Concentration camps—German inmates; health changes; Hiding; Historical record; Hitler, Adolf; Holocaust Survivors; Hope; Humor in Concentration Camps; Ignacy Moscicki; Illness; immigration; inmate relationship; Invasion of Europe; Israel; Jail; Jewish; Jewish ghettos; September 1, 1939; Jewish Property; Jews—Poland; Holocaust; Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945) – Europe – Personal narratives; Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945); World War II; World War, 1939-1945; Judaism; Judenrat; Justice; Kapos; Kommandant; Kommando; Kosher; Krakow, Poland; Krankenstube; Labor camp; Labor Camp (Buchenhof); Labor Camp (Lichow); Labor Camp (Poznan); Labor Camp (Zehaufen); Labor Camp inmates; Lager; Lageraltester; Lagerführer; Lausmann, Franz Adolf; Leczyca ghetto; Leczyca, Poland; Leo Neuhaus; Liberation; Liberators; Liquidation; Lodz ghetto; Lodz, Poland; Loss; Luzer Neuhaus; malekh hamus; Matzah; Men in concentration camps; Mendel Neuhaus; Mengele, Josef; Money; Munich, Germany; Murder; Concentration camps—Music; Mutual aid; nationalization; Nazi; Nechah Neuhaus; Never again; never forget; news; Nightmares; Non-Jews—Polish; NSDAP; Nuremberg laws; Occupied territory; Concentration camps—Orchestra; Orthodox Judaism; False Identification Papers; Identification Papers; Passover; Peace; Perpetrators; Pesach; Poland; Polish calvary; Polish ghettos; Polish government; Polish military; Postwar experiences; Poznan, Poland; Pre-war professions; Pregnancy in concentration camps; Pregnancy in Jewish ghettos; Protection; Punishment; Radio; Recuperation; Refugee; Reina Leya Khabenski Neuhaus; Religion; Reparation; Restitution; Reprisal; Resistance; Resolution; Reuven Neuhaus; Revenge; Roll call; Russian airplanes; Russian army; Russian offensive; Russian soldiers; Russian zone; Russians; Sabotage; Schreibstube; Searching; Second Generation; selection process; Separation; Shabbos; six million; Sonderkommando; Soviet; Soviet occupation; Spanish Inquisition; SS; Starvation; Stolen property; Strafe kommando; striped uniform; Sturmfuhrer; Sturmkommando; Suicide; Survival; Survivor; Target indicators; Taxes; Tefillin; Testimony; Torture; Tortured; Trading; Traitors; Trial; tsures [Yiddish: troubles]; Tunnel; United States; Vengeance; Volksdeutche; war experiences; Witness; Wohnungsbau; Women in concentration camps; Women in Jewish ghettos; Work; work detail; Yehoshua Neuhaus; Yom Kippur; Yontif; Zyklon gas; Concentration Camp (Jaworzno); dysentery; Concentration Camp (Neu-dachs)"]}}],"summary":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eLeo Neuhaus and Bella Neuhaus are interviewed by Enoch Goodfriend in Atlanta, Georgia on March 1, 1983.\u003c/p\u003e","\u003cp\u003eLeo reminisces about his family, education, and youth in Leczyca, Poland. He remembers pre-war antisemitism and relationships with non-Jews. Leo recollects the start of the war. He describes how life changed when the Germans occupied Leczyca. He recalls his family losing their home and his father being arrested. Leo talks about his brief escape to the Russian occupied Poland and why he returned home. He mentions life in the ghetto. Leo details working on the Autobahn in a forced labor camp outside Poznan. He recounts his experiences in the Lichow, Zehaufen, and Buchenhof labor camps. Leo describes his arrival in Auschwitz-Birkenau, the living conditions, and the punishments. He explains his transfer to and work in the Jaworzno concentration camp. Leo recounts a brutal beating he endured. He talks about being sent on a death march. Leo explains how he escaped into a forest and was liberated by Russians. He reflects on prisoners\u0026rsquo; lives in the camps. Leo mentions killing a German after the war. He details his recovery from starvation and disease. Leo talks about settling in Lodz while he searched for his family. He describes what he witnessed when he visited Chelmno. Leo shares his thoughts on reparations. He explains why he will not visit camps but has returned to Europe. Leo outlines his experience testifying at trial for SS guards in Germany. He expresses his belief in the importance of Israel.\u003c/p\u003e","\u003cp\u003eLeo (Luzer) Neuhaus was born in Leczyca [Polish: Łęczyca], Poland on January 22, 1921. He was the oldest child born to Yehoshua and Reina Leya (Khabenski) Neuhaus (both b. 1895). Leo had one younger sister, Nechah (b. 1925), and two younger brothers: Mendel (b.1929) and Reuven (b. 1932). As a child, Leo enjoyed a comfortable, upper class life. He attended public school and cheder. He then completed two years of a business administration program before war broke out in 1939.\u003cbr /\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr /\u003eWhen the Germans invaded Poland, a bomb destroyed the family\u0026rsquo;s home. They found shelter in one room of a building in the poorer part of the city, which soon became a ghetto. Leo had fled Leczyca for the Soviet occupied part of Poland, but without food and under threat of conscription, he soon returned to Leczyca. His father was among a group of 50 Jews arrested by the Germans and ransomed for an exorbitant price. For the next few months, the family endured more and more restrictions as life in the ghetto became increasingly difficult.\u003cbr /\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr /\u003eIn August 1940, Leo was selected for forced labor. He was taken along with 300 other young Jewish men from Leczyca to Lodz. From Lodz, he was sent with a group of 50 to a labor camp outside Poznan. There, they worked on the Autobahn. As construction progressed, every few months, the group was moved to another small labor camp. Then, in 1943, Leo was sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where he endured working and living conditions. At one point, his work detail was punished for a miscommunication. In the cold of winter, they were forced to stand for hours in roll call and then go to work without shoes or jackets. When the opportunity came to leave Auschwitz-Birkenau, Leo volunteered. At the end of 1943, he was sent to the Jaworzno/Neu-Dachs subcamp to work in the coal mines. In Jaworzno, Leo witnessed even greater brutality and was severely beaten by a guard.\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr /\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr /\u003eIn January 1945, Jaworzno was evacuated. Leo and the other prisoners were sent on a death march. Thousands died along the way. Eventually, Leo and three others managed to escape into the forest and were liberated by the Russian army. After briefly recovering from starvation and illness, Leo made his way to Lodz. In Lodz, he stayed with cousins who had also survived. He soon learned his entire family had been killed in the Chelmno extermination camp in 1943. Finding no other surviving family, Leo left Poland.\u003cbr /\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr /\u003eIn December 1945, Leo settled in Munich, Germany. There, he met another survivor, Bella Lan (1923-1988), who was from Kovno, Poland. On March 8, 1947, Leo and Bella were married. Leo made a living selling nylon stockings until their American visas were approved. On April 20, 1951, Leo and Bella arrived in New York City, New York aboard the USNS General Sturgis. Leo and Bella settled in Baltimore, Maryland near her family. Then, in 1955, they moved to Atlanta, Georgia and opened a grocery store. Leo was a member of the Associated Grocers Co-op and later went into business with real estate developer and fellow survivor Marty Storch. In 1959, Bella and Leo\u0026rsquo;s only child, a son they named Sidney, was born. In Atlanta, Leo became a member of Eternal Life-Hemshech and Congregation Shearith Israel. Leo enjoyed travelling to Israel. In 1978, he also travelled to Germany to testify against former guards at the Jaworznoconcentration camp. Leo passed away on November 28, 1986.\u003c/p\u003e"]},"requiredStatement":{"label":{"en":["Attribution"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, recorded by any information storage and retrieval system, without the express written consent of the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum.\u003c/p\u003e"]}},"provider":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/aboutus","type":"Agent","label":{"en":["William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum"]},"homepage":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/","type":"Text","label":{"en":["William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum"]},"format":"text/html"}],"logo":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/082/original/TheBreman_SecondaryMark_Horizontal_Blue_Black.png?1713640889","type":"Image"}]}],"thumbnail":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/collection_resource_files/thumbnails/000/218/041/small/Neuhaus_Leo.m4v_1701284402.jpg?1701284403","type":"Image","format":"image/jpeg"}],"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041","type":"Canvas","label":{"en":["Media File 1 of 1 - Neuhaus_Leo.m4v"]},"duration":4382.998,"width":640,"height":360,"thumbnail":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/collection_resource_files/thumbnails/000/218/041/small/Neuhaus_Leo.m4v_1701284402.jpg?1701284403","type":"Image","format":"image/jpeg"}],"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/content/1","type":"AnnotationPage","items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/content/1/annotation/1","type":"Annotation","motivation":"painting","body":{"id":"https://aviary-p-thebreman.s3.wasabisys.com/collection_resource_files/resource_files/000/218/041/original/Neuhaus_Leo.m4v?1701284393","type":"Video","format":"video/mp4","duration":4382.998,"width":640,"height":360},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041","metadata":[]}]}],"annotations":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Neuhaus, Leo [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/1","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Enoch: Today is March 1, 1983. Please tell us your full name.\n\nLeo: My name is Leo Neuhaus. Yiddish name is Luzer.\n\nEnoch: And your address?\n\nLeo: Twenty five seventy seven Circlewood Road, Atlanta, Georgia, 30345.\n\nEnoch: Leo, what is your date of birth?\n\nLeo: January 22, 1921.\n\nEnoch: How old were you when you were liberated?\n\nLeo: Twenty-five years.\n\nEnoch: Leo, before the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,30.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/2","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"war, what did you want to do for profession?\n\nLeo: I -- businessman.\n\nEnoch: What is your present occupation? What do you do now?\n\nLeo: Right now I am retired.\n\nEnoch: Before you retired?\n\nLeo: I was a grocery man.\n\nEnoch: Leo, What city were you born in, please?\n\nLeo: I am born in Leczyca.\n\nEnoch: In what country?\n\nLeo: Poland; not far from Lodz.\n\nEnoch: The place where you grew up, was it a city or more like the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=30.0,60.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/3","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"country?\n\nLeo: A city.\n\nEnoch: Leo, tell me about your family. Who lived in your household?\n\nLeo: My father, my mother, my two brothers, my sister and me.\n\nEnoch: Could you please give us the names of the people that lived in your household?\n\nLeo: My father's name [was] Yehoshua. My mother's name was Reina Leya and my\nmother's maiden name [was] Khabenski. My brother Mendel, Reuven, and I had a\nsister, Nechah.\n\nEnoch: Leo, before the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=60.0,90.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/4","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"war, what was your income status in the community? Were\nyou middle class, upper class, lower class?\n\nLeo: Upper class. Not me; my father.\n\nEnoch: [Yes,] your family. And your educational background. Did you go to a\nyeshiva or a public school? What kind of school did you go to?\n\nLeo: I went to a public school. I finished from a public school in 1935. Then,\nin the public school over the years, I went to cheder. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=90.0,120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/5","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Then, after I finished\npublic school, I went to business administration school [for] two years. I never\nfinished it because the war started.\n\nEnoch: Leo, did you come from an Orthodox home or --\n\nLeo: Conservative.\n\nEnoch: Before the war, what were your contacts with non-Jews like?\n\nLeo: We had some friends that were Polish guys; not many. Most of them, we ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=120.0,150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/6","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"went\ntogether with Jewish boys and Jewish girls.\n\nEnoch: Before the war, Leo, did you experience antisemitism?\n\nLeo: We did not feel it too much, antisemitism, but there was antisemitism in\nPoland, plenty.\n\nEnoch: How old were you and what were your first memories of the war? Now, how\ndid it affect you personally and when?\n\nLeo: The war started in 1939, August 1939. I was then about not even ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=150.0,180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/7","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"18 years,\n17 or 18 years old.\n\nEnoch: What were your first memories of the war?\n\nLeo: First memories of the war that on Friday morning, the war started. They\nthrew bombs on our city and they killed maybe 200 horses. We had some military\nin our city around our houses, calvary. They killed about 200 horses right away.\n\nEnoch: The calvary?\n\nLeo: About 12:00, the Polish ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=180.0,210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/8","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"president, Ignacy Moscicki, declared the war\nstarted. The enemy, Germany, had declared war on Poland and [passed through]\ntheir borders.\n\nEnoch: How did the changes that came with the Nazi movement affect you? For\nexample, when the Nuremberg laws were passed, how did they affect you personally?\n\nLeo: Affected me very much. When the war started, when the Germans occupied\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=210.0,240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/9","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Poland, occupied our city, our house, for the first -- our house burned up from\nthe war, from the activity from the war. To be outside now, without a home, we\nwent in the ghetto and we had one room for the whole family. We slept on the\nfloor. The Germans, when they come into our city, right [away] they start to put\nup ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=240.0,270.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/10","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"some new laws, regulations, especially for the Jews, and it was no good.\n\nEnoch: What did your non-Jewish neighbors do? Did they help you?\n\nLeo: They did not help us at all, but they did not hurt us any either. They was\nin trouble too. When the Germans come into our city, they made a selection [of]\nthree classes of people. First, they took the Volksdeutche. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=270.0,300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/11","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"That means the\nPolish-German people. Then, they took the Polish people. Last, they took the\nJews. For each category, they had special laws, like every day, whatever, there\nwas something else. Every day, they come out with the new laws. One day, they come out and when they coming into our city, they took 50 Jewish people. They put them in jail--between them was my father--and ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=300.0,330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/12","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"asked them to give a contribution for 50,000 zlotys [Polish currency] right there, and all the gold, and all the silver, and all the diamonds what we have, and all the jewelry\nthat we picked up. After my father being in jail about ten days, they let him\nout. They let them out on the condition, you have to bring the $50,000 zlotys.\n$50,000 zlotys was in Poland a lot of money. That was over $10,000 according to\nthe [American] money, to the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=330.0,360.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/13","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"exchange. They got together the 50,000 zlotys.\nRight when we give it to them, they want more, and more, and more.\n\nEnoch: As the war became closer to you, Leo, what options did you and your\nfamily have, or did you have any?\n\nLeo: We had no options at all. We were surrounded by the Germans. That is all.\n\nEnoch: How did you decide what you were going to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=360.0,390.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/14","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"do? How did you decide what\naction you were going to take?\n\nLeo: First, we decided -- We talked about any action to take but we did not do\nnothing. I ran off from the house with another two boys to the Russian zone. The\nRussians took over in Bialystok [Poland]. I been there a few weeks and it was\neven worse than like the concentration camp. We have nothing to eat. It was\ncold. I sold everything that I had--all the clothes, all the jewels, everything.\nEverything what I have, I sold ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=390.0,420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/15","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"it. Then, after then, the Russians made a law\nthat all the yevreyskiy [Russian: Jews]--means all the newcomers--got to\nregister to go to the army. I went and went back home. I come back home after\nthree, four weeks. I do not know how long I been away. Then, I been in the\nhouse. We got to work every day. They took us to work, the Germans, and then,\nthat was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=420.0,450.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/16","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"all.\n\nEnoch: Was this the ghetto? Were you in a ghetto?\n\nLeo: They made a ghetto, yes, but the ghetto was not a special ghetto like in\nLodz. It was open ghetto. It was made with barbed wire --\n\nEnoch: Barbed wire.\n\nLeo: -- with open door. You could go in and out when I was there. I was there\ntill August 1940.\n\nEnoch: What happened in August 1940?\n\nLeo: In 1940, they give the Jewish [council] a law to pick ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/17","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"up 300 of the most\nstrongest young people what the city had and we went to work. They took us in\nthe school. [They] kept us in the school about three days. After then, they took\nus to Lodz.\n\nEnoch: Where was the school?\n\nLeo: In Leczyca. They took us in school. [From the] school, they took us to\nLodz. In Lodz, the minute we came into Lodz, they took us in a big factory\nplace, a motor factory. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=480.0,510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/18","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"It was not active. The first thing, when we came in, the\nfirst welcome they gave us with sticks over our head. They beat us up all over.\nWe been there about ten days in Lodz. We slept on seven floors. They gave us to\neat a piece of bread and some cold water for ten days. Then they took us back to\nPoznan [Poland], to a labor camp.\n\nEnoch: Where was this camp?\n\nLeo: In ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=510.0,540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/19","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Poznan. We were in Poznan about six months. Then, we went to Lichow. In\nLichow, we started to work on the highway, the Autobahn.\n\nEnoch: Leo, what happened when you arrived at Poznan? When you first arrived?\n\nLeo: In Poznan, our German Kommandant Fuhrer [German: commander; leader] here\ntook us somewhere and divided us in 50 guys to a place. Every three kilometers\n[1.9 miles], they put in a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=540.0,570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/20","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camp. We went to work. We worked on the highway. We\nbuild the Autobahn from Poznan -- to Cologne [Germany].\n\nEnoch: Did you arrive with members of your family?\n\nLeo: No.\n\nEnoch: What happened to them?\n\nLeo: They been in the city.\n\nEnoch: They were still in the city?\n\nLeo: In the same city, yes.\n\nEnoch: What do you remember about your first days at Poznan?\n\nLeo: Poznan was not so good, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=570.0,600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/21","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"but I remember we start to -- They teach us how to\nwork, what you going to do. They explain us everything because our camp was\npreparation camp to work on the highway.\n\nEnoch: What were your thoughts and reactions to all of this taking ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=600.0,630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/22","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"place? How\ndid you feel about all this taking place?\n\nLeo: We feel bad, but what can we do? We got to do the best we can. The worst\nthing was we left our family at home, but in the camp, we still have been --\nhave communications. We got letters. They sent me packages every week.\n\nEnoch: After Poznan -- How long were you there?\n\nLeo: About two months or three months.\n\nEnoch: After that?\n\nLeo: After Poznan, we went to Lichow. In Lichow, was a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=630.0,660.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/23","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camp. We were 50 guys in\nthe camp. We start building the highway.\n\nEnoch: What country was that in?\n\nLeo: In Poland. It is in Poland. In Lichow, I been about six months. In Lichow,\nwe finish up one kilometer of the road. About a year it took us. From [there],\nwe went to Zehaufen. In Zehaufen, I been from 1940 to end of 1941.\n\nEnoch: Still in Poland?\n\nLeo: Still in Poland. It was a village what the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=660.0,690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/24","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"highway went through. We build\nover there. We been over there 50 guys in the camp, the same 50 guys. What\nhappens one day, one guy died. Then, we were 49 only. His name was Katz. He got\ninfections in the lungs and he died.\n\nEnoch: These were primarily labor camps?\n\nLeo: Labor camps, yes.\n\nEnoch: After that?\n\nLeo: After that, I went to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=690.0,720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/25","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Buchenhof.\n\nEnoch: Buchenhof?\n\nLeo: Buchenhof. This was in 1942, beginning of 1942 till I been there the end of\n1943. [Unintelligible; 12:13] was the SS took over the camp and they took away\nall our money. We still was in contact with the home. It was January 1943 or\nFebruary 1943. I received a letter from the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=720.0,750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/26","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"home. It was the last letter. In my\nlast letter what my father wrote me that I have the best chance to live\n[through] the war. [He wrote,] \"In our city, the malekh hamus [Yiddish: angel of\ndeath] goes around.\" [He was] saying, \"The angel of death goes around and we\nhaven't got no chance to live anymore. We are collected to die.\" That is what he\nwrites me in the letters. In the package was -- The last package I received, I received a cup with a double ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=750.0,780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/27","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"bottom. I kept this cup until I went to Auschwitz-Birkenau. In Auschwitz-Birkenau, I have to leave it in the [unintelligible; 13:12]. What I carry [unintelligible; 13:13], got rid\nof everything what you had. I do not know till today what was in this cup. It\nwas a little cup.\n\nEnoch: What do you think?\n\nLeo: I do not know. It was a double bottom. I know it was a double bottom\nbecause I can see it. Though I saw it, it was made very nice.\n\nEnoch: Okay, you went ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=780.0,810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/28","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to Buchenhof. This was 1941?\n\nLeo: End of 1941, yes, beginning of 1942.\n\nEnoch: Was Buchenhof also a labor camp?\n\nLeo: A labor camp, yes.\n\nEnoch: What did you do there?\n\nLeo: We still worked on the same thing, on the highway.\n\nEnoch: How long were you there all together?\n\nLeo: Throughout 1943, about a year and a half.\n\nEnoch: Was the -- your thoughts and the basic ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=810.0,840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/29","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"function of this camp, Buchenhof,\nthe same as the camps before?\n\nLeo: Yes. We did not have it too bad because the Lageraltester [German: camp\nelder] was an old man, an old German. He still was fluent in [Adolf] Hitler's\nrules, but he was not too bad. They give us tips what to do. When the SS came\nbefore, taking our money away, he told us, he told the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=840.0,870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/30","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Lageraltester -- The\nLagerführer [German: camp leader] was a German. The Lageraltester was a Jew. He\nwas my cousin. He told them to give him the money. He was going to buy for us\nfood. He really did.\n\nEnoch: You left Buchenhof in 1943?\n\nLeo: August 1943.\n\nEnoch: And you --\n\nLeo: Come to Auschwitz-Birkenau.\n\nEnoch: I have to interrupt. I have a question. What determined -- How did you\nknow or how did they know -- How did you know how you were going from what ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=870.0,900.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/31","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camp\nto which?\n\nLeo: I did not know. When I come to another place, I find out where I am.\n\nEnoch: How did you find out?\n\nLeo: We been in contact with the outside people and we saw it. Lichow was a\ncity. Zehaufen was a village and Buchenhof was a village.\n\nEnoch: If you had 50 people in one of these camps and you say you moved on, did\nall 50 of these people move on at the same time?\n\nLeo: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=900.0,930.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/32","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yes.\n\nEnoch: Who filled their places?\n\nLeo: This thing was -- The Lager [German: camp] was liquidation because --\n\nEnoch: They left?\n\nLeo: The road was finished.\n\nEnoch: Okay, so 1943 now, you were transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau?\n\nLeo: Auschwitz-Birkenau, right.\n\nEnoch: Was this the same kind of camp as the other camps?\n\nLeo: No, Auschwitz-Birkenau was a concentration camp. When I came to\nAuschwitz-Birkenau, I did not know where I am. I asked a guy over there. I said\nto him, a Jewish guy, \"Where I am?\" He said, \"What you worried about where you\nare? ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=930.0,960.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/33","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Tomorrow, you will be dead anyway. If you are going to live till tomorrow,\nI got a --\" He had a girl write him a pen. That is what he told me. I will never\nforget that is what he told me.\n\nEnoch: Were you aware of a selection process when you arrived?\n\nLeo: Yes. When we came in to Auschwitz-Birkenau, they said, \"[Unintelligible\nGerman; 16:24].\" Everything we have, to step out from the wagons and everything\nleave. [They said,] \"Alles ihr haben verlassen\" [broken German: All you have, leave].\n\nEnoch: Leave everything ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=960.0,990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/34","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"behind.\n\nLeo: Everything behind you. Then, they took us into the camp. They took our\nclothes off. We stayed maybe 24 hours [with] no clothes at all. The give us\nbekleidung [German: clothing], bed, and give us striped clothes, shirt, pants, a\npair of shoes, and a jacket, and a round hat.\n\nEnoch: How did the selection process work?\n\nLeo: The selection. When we come into the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=990.0,1020.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/35","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"door, Doctor [Josef] Mengele was\nstanding right there. He picked right, left. We did not know what was right,\nwhat was left, but he picked right, left. Then we saw young people he took to\nthe right and old people he took to the left. All the sick people, and the\nchildren, and mostly old women, he took to the left.\n\nEnoch: Can you describe what you remember about the first days in the camp? What\nwere your thoughts ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/36","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and reactions inside? What did you feel about --\n\nLeo: Scared to death. This is the only thing I can tell you. A lot of people\ncommitted suicide, went into the electric wire. They got electrocuted.\n\nEnoch: That was their reaction. Did you have a reaction?\n\nLeo: I did not have too much reaction. I was too young.\n\nEnoch: How old?\n\nLeo: I still thought that maybe I will live [through] this thing.\n\nEnoch: How old were you?\n\nLeo: When I come to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943, I was 23 years ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1050.0,1080.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/37","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"old.\n\nEnoch: Now, could you describe the camp and the daily functions in the camp?\nTell me a day. You wake up in the morning --\n\nLeo: Wake up in the morning at six o'clock in the morning and went to\nAppellplatz [German: roll call place]. Appellplatz means you are on a big square\nand the whole camp was counted. They count the [unintelligible; 18:24]. Then we\nwent. They give us soup, a piece of bread, or some coffee. We eated [sic] up the\nwhole thing and went to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1080.0,1110.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/38","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"work. We work a whole day. You come back to the camp and\nwe went to sleep. Tomorrow morning was the same thing.\n\nEnoch: What type of work did you do?\n\nLeo: In the camp, I worked on the bausteller [German: builder]. We built some\nkind of electronic things. I did not know what we did in Auschwitz-Birkenau.\nThen I went in to work in the ausplatz kommando [German: outside place work\ndetail]. You know what this is? We ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1110.0,1140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/39","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"unloaded everything what comes in the camp,\nlike clothes, bread, butters. Everything we unloaded and we pushed it in with\nthe wagon. We walk to the places, to the [unintelligible; 19:17] and then we--\nThat is all we did the whole day. One day, it was raining and our aus Kommandant\n[German: leader of the outside work detail]-- You know what aus Kommandant is?\nGuys who work outside, on the free -- What [do] you call ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1140.0,1170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/40","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"it?\n\nEnoch: Outside the walls?\n\nLeo: On outside means [unintelligible; 19:38]. It was raining. They took them\nback to the camp. We unloaded exactly the bags and the whole commander just\njumped on us. They stole 40 bags and went way. At night, was come into on Appell\n[German: roll call]. The Lager, the Sturmfuhrer [an SS rank], call us up and\nsaid we got to go to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1170.0,1200.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/41","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the Aufgaben Kommandant [German: task commander]. We got to\ngo to the Schreibstube [German: writing room]. Schreibstube was the place where\nthey give all the calls for what we did all day. We come to the Schreibstube\nover there and then [he asked] what we did with the bags. We are short 40 bags.\nI said the Sturmkommando come in, and called on us, and they stole the bags.\nAnyway, the foreman of the kommando got 50 of his ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1200.0,1230.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/42","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"behind with a stick and every\none of us got 25 and a bucket of water not to faint, a bucket all over your head.\n\nEnoch: Were there any attempts at resistance or escape?\n\nLeo: Escape was attempted but it all fell through. In Jaworzno, Polish guys made\na tunnel from the barrack. You know ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1230.0,1260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/43","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"what a barrack is?\n\nEnoch: A tunnel from the barrack?\n\nLeo: From the barrack to the wire. The tunnel was already ready. Then, an\nofficer, an SS man, whatever, a watchman saw something going on over by this\ncanteen. He called the SS and in one day, they catched [sic] all 36 guys. After\na few weeks later, they took those 36 guys and they gave them the death penalty.\nThey brought them back to the camp. All of a sudden, we got ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1260.0,1290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/44","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"called off of work.\nWe got to go all to the camp. We did not know what was going on. We come to the\ncamp. We see a big galley. What you call those?\n\nEnoch: Gallows?\n\nLeo: Gallows. They were going to hang the whole camp. I did not know what was\ngoing to happen. Then, after an hour, an hour and a half, they brought a\ntruckload with those 36 guys chained up in wires, and handcuffs, and the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1290.0,1320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/45","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"whole\ncamp around. It was also -- The Germans even were scared. They had machine guns\non us. They were scared of an uprising. The guys, those 36 guys, were hanged,\nall of them. A father had to hang his own son. We have to stay and scream, \"Die\nSchweine bei nicht komme [German: The pigs don't come]!\" Who did not scream got\n[hit] with a stick over his ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1320.0,1350.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/46","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"head. We were staying over there over two hours\nlooking at them how they hang those 36 guys. This was Jaworzno. Jaworzno I\nworked in a coal mine.\n\nEnoch: While you were in Auschwitz-Birkenau, did you think you would survive?\n\nLeo: I never think -- I never thought that I will survive, but I tried to\n[unintelligible; 22:57] as much as I can, as much as I can at the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1350.0,1380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/47","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"time.\n\nEnoch: In Auschwitz-Birkenau, was there any special or unusual experience that\nyou would like to tell me about?\n\nLeo: After the 25 whips on behind what we get, we all got fined. We all got to\ngo to the S-K. S-K means Strafe kommando [German: punishment work detail]. You\nknow what means Strafe kommando? A fine kommando what we gotta do special work.\n\nBella: Punishment.\n\nLeo: A punishment ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1380.0,1410.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/48","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"kommando. This punishment kommando was terrible. They took our\nshoes away. They took our shirt away. We just wear our pants and a jacket. We\nstayed and worked like this in the camp. It was early November month. It was\ncold already. We stand in Appell for three, four hours every morning. We stand\none foot on the ground; one foot I [lifted up off the ground to] keep ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1410.0,1440.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/49","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"warm. I\nchange my foots like this. That is terrible. We sleep on a bed five together\nwith one blanket to cover up. After this, one day they asked, \"Who wants to go\nto work in a coal mine?\" We was the first guys what was volunteering to go to\nwork in coal mine. They took us to Jaworzno.\n\nEnoch: When did you ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1440.0,1470.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/50","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"arrive in Jaworzno?\n\nLeo: Jaworzno we arrived in 1942.\n\nEnoch: Forty two?\n\nLeo: No, 1944, 1943, end of --\n\nEnoch: You were in Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943 and in 1944, you were in Jaworzno?\n\nLeo: Forty four I was in Jaworzno.\n\nEnoch: This is still in Poland?\n\nLeo: Yes, it is Poland, yes, near Krakow, not far from Krakow.\n\nEnoch: When you ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1470.0,1500.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/51","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"arrived in Jaworzno, what happened?\n\nLeo: They took us right now in the coal mine to work.\n\nEnoch: Was this a labor camp?\n\nLeo: No, concentration camp. It was affiliated from Auschwitz-Birkenau, a\ndivision of Auschwitz-Birkenau. Auschwitz-Birkenau had maybe a hundred camps\naround it.\n\nEnoch: How long did you work in the coal mines at Jaworzno?\n\nLeo: Seventeen, 18 ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1500.0,1530.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/52","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"months.\n\nEnoch: You were working in the mines. Were you treated any better? Did you have\nfood because you were working?\n\nLeo: We got a little better food. We got a little more from the -- We got a\nspecial [provision] about three or four a week. We got a little piece of butter,\nmargarine butter. We got a bigger piece of bread, too, but still, it was not enough. In the coal mine, I had one experience one time with an SS man. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1530.0,1560.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/53","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I stole a shirt\nin the bekleidung kommando [German: clothing work detail], in the place where\nthey keep all the clothes. I took it to the coal mine to sell it. I sold it to a\nPole what worked with us, a man who digs coal, for bread. He was supposed to\nbring me a piece of bread. I was working night shift and he was working day\nshift. When I go home, he came to work. One ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1560.0,1590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/54","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"day, when I supposed to go out from\nthe coal mine, he did not come in time. I was waiting for the piece of bread. I\nwas late to come up from the shift. Then, the SS man come down. He had his\ncarbide lamp, what we lighted what we had lights in the coal mine. I saw his was\ncoming, I blew out the carbide lamp. The ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1590.0,1620.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/55","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"guy ran away. Then the SS man come to me [asking] why I was late. I said I lost my light and could not find the place to go. He tell me I am telling a lie. He start to beat on me. I say, \"I am not telling a lie. That is what the fact is.\" He took me out\nwith the elevator on the from the coal mine. He took all this, all the Poles\nwhat worked the shift up too. He lined them ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1620.0,1650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/56","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"up I should recognize them. I said,\n\"I cannot recognize nobody. I didn't talk to nobody.\" He took a stick what they put together two train cars, knocked me in the head, made ten holes in my head, broke my shoulder bone, and I was half dead just about. They carried me back to the camp. I could not walk anymore to the camp. They carried me to the camp. When I came to the camp, he gave an order to the\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1650.0,1680.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/57","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"krankenstube [German: infirmary]--that means the hospital--not to let me in. I\nwould not go in anyway, because if you go in the hospital, stay over there two\ndays, you still sick, they put you in the crematorium. I went to work with a\nbroken arm, shoulder. The shoulder broke. I went to work. This was 1944,\nDecember, right before the liberation.\n\nEnoch: This is Jaworzno?\n\nLeo: Jaworzno, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1680.0,1710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/58","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"yes. The SS man's name was [Franz Adolf] Lausmann. I was so badly\nbeaten that I thought I was going to die, but I survived somehow. I went to\nwork. Monday morning, I went to work. This was Sunday night. Monday, I went to\nwork. I was scared to go to the hospital. I went to work. The Poles got me\nspecial. They gave me a bed to lay down, not work. They were staying and\nwatching if somebody would ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/59","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"come, to get off the bed. They brought me some food,\nsome soup, some bread, because I did not tell who it is. Somehow, I survived,\nbut my arm hurt me till I got liberated. This thing go together, but not right.\n\nEnoch: You never told them you hurt your shoulder? You did not tell them?\n\nLeo: No, I did not tell them. He broke my shoulder with a stick, a piece of\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1740.0,1770.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/60","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"steel. He knocked my thing [unintelligible; 29:33].\n\nEnoch: How long were you in Jaworzno all together?\n\nLeo: A year and a half.\n\nEnoch: Then, that was 1945 now?\n\nLeo: In January 1945, they took us on a march. The Russians start the offensive.\nWhen the Russians start the defensive, they come close to the camp. They took us\non a march. We walked from Jaworzno ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1770.0,1800.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/61","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to Gleiwitz [Poland], which is a 120\nkilometer [75 miles] walk, a whole night and a whole day. During this trip, what you walk around, walk on the highways, they kill maybe half of the over 4,000 people when we left. We come to Gleiwitz, we was 2,000. They killed 2,000 people on the way. I was walking with a friend of mine. He held my hand. I was walking. It was cold. We wear these Hollander ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1800.0,1830.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/62","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"shoes, wooden\nshoes. The snow was sticking to the shoes. He could not walk right either. The\nSS man went and shot him right after that, right in front of me. He fell down\nright there. His name was Fischer.\n\nEnoch: You continued on the march?\n\nLeo: I continued on the march till Blechhammer. In Blechhammer, they start to\ntake us out again on the march to go to work. We went into -- ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1830.0,1860.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/63","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"The Russians start\nto shoot very hard. We went into a forest to sit down, to rest a little bit.\nThen, I ran away. I ran away with my two cousins and another guy. Four guys, we\nran away. We stayed in the forest for three or four days. It was from the 19th\nto the 22nd of January.\n\nEnoch: Leo, we are going to go back a few years now. In 1943, when you came to\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1860.0,1890.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/64","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Auschwitz-Birkenau, the three camps you were in before Auschwitz-Birkenau were\nlabor camps?\n\nLeo: Labor camps, yes.\n\nEnoch: Now, these questions that I am going to ask you pertain to the\nconcentration camps. In the camps, how did people help each other? I know you\nmentioned before, while you were sick working in the coal mines, they tried to\nhelp you. Are you aware of any instances of people helping each other?\n\nLeo: Not very much because everybody got their own ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1890.0,1920.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/65","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sorrows.\n\nEnoch: Do you remember any instances of giving gifts, people helping people,\nsharing --\n\nLeo: What gifts? They did not have anything.\n\nEnoch: Something small?\n\nLeo: No one had nothing.\n\nEnoch: How did you know who you could trust?\n\nLeo: I could only trust my friends that I know from the home. We went out from\nthe house 300 guys, young. Two of them is alive now. That is all. Two of them\nwas ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1920.0,1950.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/66","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"liberated--298 even got killed from 300--me and another guy who lives in\nBaltimore, Shmuel Ziederman.\n\nEnoch: In your experience in the camps, did groups form? Did any kind of groups\nform within the camps?\n\nLeo: It was impossible because you are scared to even talk aloud. For talking\nanything, any word what they did not like it, they killed ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1950.0,1980.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/67","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you for nothing. They\nkilled you for nothing. When we saw a SS man, we had to pull our hats [off our\nheads]. If you did not pull your hats, they killed you.\n\nEnoch: Were some people loners? Did people stay by themselves?\n\nLeo: A lot of them, yes, stayed by themselves.\n\nEnoch: How did they manage to survive every ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1980.0,2010.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/68","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"day?\n\nLeo: They survived. They managed. They had to hold out as long as they can. Most\nof them died. Like I told you, from 300 people what we left in 1940, left two\npeople of 300.\n\nEnoch: Did borrowing, or loaning, or trading for cigarettes, for food, did that\ngo on?\n\nLeo: Yes, you could for cigarettes you can get a soup. For one cigarette, you\nget a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2010.0,2040.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/69","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"soup. Most of them that bought cigarettes was the kapos and people that\nhave connection with the kitchen. Some people that was heavy smokers, they gave\naway their soup for a cigarette, but they did not last long. These person, they\ndie. I see dead people every single day. I see -- In our camp, was around 4,000 people.\n\nEnoch: Which camp?\n\nLeo: In ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2040.0,2070.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/70","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Jaworzno, every day you see 25, 30 dead. Every single day, young and old.\n\nEnoch: Do you remember being able to laugh or share any humorous experiences?\n\nLeo: Sometimes. From tsures [Yiddish: troubles] sometimes, yes.\n\nEnoch: From tsures, from troubles?\n\nLeo: From troubles.\n\nEnoch: Were you able to share any ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2070.0,2100.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/71","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"humors?\n\nLeo: I do not remember that. I do not think so.\n\nEnoch: Do you think, Leo --\n\nLeo: We all had it very badly. They took us to work for nothing, only thing\nbecause we are Jews. They treat us like dogs, worse like dogs, and feed us --\nhard work like slaves, more like slaves, worse like slaves.\n\nEnoch: Are you ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2100.0,2130.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/72","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"aware -- We spoke about what kind of work you did in the\ndifferent camps. Were there any attempts at sabotage, to try to sabotage the\nGerman operations in the camp?\n\nLeo: No, not in the camp.\n\nEnoch: Why not?\n\nLeo: Because we were scared. We could not do it. You would endanger the whole\ncamp. They could kill the whole camp for just a little bitty ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2130.0,2160.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/73","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"thing. Like I told\nyou, there were machine guns that were surrounding all of the camps. For any\nlittle thing what you did, they would shoot you out. They did not care.\n\nEnoch: What was your most personal contact with the SS?\n\nLeo: I did not have no contact with none of them; only when they carry us to\nwork and they beat me up.\n\nEnoch: Did any guards or SS ever talk about what was happening to the Jews?\n\nLeo: No.\n\nEnoch: Or anybody else?\n\nLeo: They were ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2160.0,2190.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/74","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"scared to do [that]. In the coal mines, sometimes a Pole said\nsomething [like] we would not be very long here, the war would be ending pretty\nsoon, and maybe we would get liberated.\n\nEnoch: Was there a difference in the work done by the Jews as opposed to the non-Jews?\n\nLeo: Sure. We did the labor work. They did the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2190.0,2220.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/75","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"more -- Like, in the coal mine he\nworked the dynamite to dynamite the walls for coal. They did this kind of work.\nWe did the loading. We must load it on the trains. There was a train right there\nunderground. It went 360 meters underground. This is over a thousand feet.\n\nEnoch: This is Jaworzno?\n\nLeo: Jaworzno, yes.\n\nEnoch: Suppose before the war that you were a doctor, or a nurse, an artist, or\na musician, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2220.0,2250.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/76","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"or a teacher? Were these people who were trained for this, able to\ndo this kind of work?\n\nLeo: Who was able to do it was living; who was not able died.\n\nEnoch: The question is, if they were doctors before the war, Leo, and they were\nin this camp with you, were the people allowed to do the work that they had\ntrained for before the war? If you were a doctor, could you be a doctor in the camps?\n\nLeo: I do not think ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2250.0,2280.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/77","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"so. There was some doctors in the camp from the inmates.\n\nEnoch: Teachers?\n\nLeo: No, we did not have no school at all.\n\nEnoch: What about the musicians?\n\nLeo: We did not have no musicians. In Auschwitz-Birkenau was music. They had a\nband. The only thing they had the band to cover up the screaming from the\ncrematoriums, when the people are screaming, when they dying. When they poured\ngas on ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2280.0,2310.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/78","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"them, Zyklon gas, then the orchestra was playing.\n\nEnoch: Jewish musicians?\n\nLeo: Some Jewish; most of them were Germans: German convicts, killers, politicians.\n\nEnoch: How do you think your religious beliefs changed in the camps, or did they?\n\nLeo: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2310.0,2340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/79","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"We did not believe. What can we believe? The only thing this is we know\nthis: we talked and we have no more G-d. What happens to us, nothing. There is\nno G-d anymore.\n\nEnoch: Did you believe in G-d before the war?\n\nLeo: I was not Orthodox. My father was not that Orthodox, but we had a kosher\nhome, and I had to daven every morning before I eat ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2340.0,2370.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/80","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"breakfast, wear tefillin\nafter bar mitzvah. My father did not do anything on Shabbos. I can tell you\nthis. A Conservative in Poland was ten times more religious than here are\nOrthodox in America. It was really a religious country. We had three and a half\nmillion Jews in the cities. They lived mostly in the cities. When you go out\nSaturday on the street, you ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/81","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"see is Shabbos. All the stores was closed because it\nwas Jews had the business. It was like a holiday, Shabbos.\n\nEnoch: In the camps, did the religious practices continue?\n\nLeo: Some of it.\n\nEnoch: Tell me about that.\n\nLeo: We used to daven in the morning. We knew about Yontif.\n\nEnoch: How?\n\nLeo: We figured -- Some of them figured it out, you know. We fasted on Yom\nKippur. I remember, in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2400.0,2430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/82","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"fact, matzahs in Auschwitz-Birkenau. We had a little\nflour, and then with water, [like] in the home what we was eating. We used to\nmake little matzahs on Pesach. We tried together. We tried to do it the most we\ncan, but if they saw it, they would not let us do it.\n\nEnoch: In which camp was this?\n\nLeo: That was back in Jaworzno.\n\nEnoch: In Auschwitz-Birkenau, did this ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2430.0,2460.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/83","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"occur?\n\nLeo: I do not think so. Auschwitz-Birkenau was -- The most strict [sic] camp was\nAuschwitz-Birkenau. The worst guys was there. All of them were bad, but over\nthere were the biggest devils to what people can imagine was there in Auschwitz-Birkenau.\n\nEnoch: Give me an example.\n\nLeo: Think about something. Like, I will give you an example. For nothing, they\ndid the worst thing to you. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2460.0,2490.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/84","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"One time, they grabbed me for I tried to get another\nsoup. They put my hands tied behind my back and they hang me on my hands. That\nwas the worst pain you ever can imagine your life. I hang like this way maybe\nhalf an hour. When they took me down, my whole body was like paralyzed. All my\nbones were crushed. For a thousand things like that, they would figure out such things for ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2490.0,2520.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/85","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"nothing. On the Appell place, they had some benches where you had to pull in your head,\nputting your head [on the bench] by your neck, and they would beat you with a\nstick as hard as they could, just for nothing, just for the littlest thing what\nthey thought we doing wrong.\n\nEnoch: You mentioned before what happened if you got ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2520.0,2550.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/86","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sick. Do you remember any\nillnesses while you were in the camp that you had?\n\nLeo: No, I was never sick. If I feel bad, I still went to work. In the labor\ncamps, sometimes I get sick, I can go to a place [for] sick sometimes, but not\nin the concentration camp.\n\nEnoch: Was illness an automatic death sentence or was it a reprieve? They let\nyou go.\n\nLeo: What do you mean they let you go?\n\nEnoch: If you were ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2550.0,2580.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/87","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sick, was it an automatic death sentence?\n\nLeo: If you are sick, you are not able to work, you go to -- After three days\nyou sick, you automatically go to crematorium. There was no other way.\n\nEnoch: Was there medicine?\n\nLeo: There was no other way. Medicine? What kind of medicine? No medicine at\nall. I did not see any medicine.\n\nEnoch: Anywhere?\n\nLeo: No medicine at all.\n\nEnoch: You mentioned a hospital before.\n\nLeo: Yes, a krankenstube, but nobody go there. Like I told you, you stay there\nthree days, after four days you gone. Somebody wants to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2580.0,2610.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/88","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"die, they went to the hospital.\n\nEnoch: Did you receive any dental care for your mouth?\n\nLeo: Did I receive what?\n\nEnoch: Dental care.\n\nLeo: No.\n\nEnoch: Did dentists search your mouth for gold?\n\nLeo: I did not have no gold.\n\nEnoch: Did they search?\n\nLeo: They searched everybody, sure, when you come in. You did not know what they\nsearch you.\n\nEnoch: What happened to pregnant women?\n\nLeo: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2610.0,2640.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/89","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I do not know. I have not been with women together; no, I was with only\nmen. There was no such thing as pregnant women. Where they get pregnant from?\nHow they such a thing? I did not see a woman. From 1943 to 1945, I did not see a\nwoman in front of me. I never seen ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2640.0,2670.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/90","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"one.\n\nEnoch: Tell me more about your food.\n\nLeo: Food? We went to work. I worked night shift. At night, we got a portion of\nbread, the soup, the coffee, piece of margarine, and sometimes you get a piece\nof blutwurst [German: blood sausage]. Blutwurst is made like salami made out of\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2670.0,2700.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/91","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"blood. That is all. I eat up the whole thing at one time. Then, I starved for 24\nhours. I had been fasting 24 hours for a year and a half every day most of the\ntime. If I collect sometimes a piece of bread, I eat it right up. A lot of times, in the coal mine, I went in the dangerous places and expected the guard soon to come down and kill me. That is how a young man works like a horse. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2700.0,2730.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/92","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"[Unintelligible; 45:33] my work.\n\nEnoch: Why did you not commit suicide? Why did you continue?\n\nLeo: I still thought that maybe I -- I was too weak to do this. When I was\nliberated, I was 90 pounds. I weighed 90 ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2730.0,2760.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/93","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"pounds.\n\nEnoch: You mentioned you just weighed 90 pounds at the time of liberation. What\nother health changes occurred while you were in the camps? What else happened?\n\nLeo: I broke my shoulder, my nose was broken, I had holes in my head that was\nnot even healed when I was liberated. Then, in February or March 1945, I ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2760.0,2790.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/94","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"went in\nto a hospital in Poland after the liberation. They broke open the bone [in my\nshoulder] and reset the whole thing here. I still have a picture how I looked\nwith bandages all over. That is me.\n\nEnoch: Is this the picture right here?\n\nLeo: Let me see.\n\nEnoch: Hold that up. Let us see it.\n\nLeo: From ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2790.0,2820.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/95","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"July 1945. See it?\n\nEnoch: In any of the camps you were in, Leo, were medical experiments carried out?\n\nLeo: In Auschwitz-Birkenau was medical experiments, yes.\n\nEnoch: What did you know about that?\n\nLeo: We heard about that, but we did not see ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2820.0,2850.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/96","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"it.\n\nEnoch: What did you hear?\n\nLeo: Mostly they tortured young guys and women. We heard about the medical\nexperiments. We did not know what is going on. We heard it was going on. We did\nnot see it.\n\nEnoch: Were there prisoners who you thought of as traitors? ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2850.0,2880.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/97","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"The kapos, the\nSonderkommando, did you think they were traitors?\n\nLeo: Some of them were. Some of them to save their own skin, they did everything\nwhat the Germans told them to do it. Some of them did not do this thing, but\nmost of them was to save their own skin. They did not save their skin anyway.\nThey put them to die. They put them to dead anyway, the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2880.0,2910.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/98","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"kapos.\n\nEnoch: What happened to them?\n\nLeo: Some of them was liberated. If they got caught, they were put in jail after\nthe war. Some of them died the same thing like we died, like everybody died.\n[They] got killed, got starved, by shooting, or by they gassed them. If they did\none thing something wrong. Then that was the story. They kill them, too,\neventually, like they killed ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2910.0,2940.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/99","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us.\n\nEnoch: Leo, were you ever directly or indirectly involved in killing someone in\nthe camps?\n\nLeo: In the camps, no.\n\nEnoch: After?\n\nLeo: After the camps, I killed one German in Munich [Germany].\n\nEnoch: Could you tell us ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2940.0,2970.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/100","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"about that?\n\nLeo: Just for nothing. He called me, \"Dirty Jew.\" I hit him so bad that he died\nthere in the streetcar.\n\nEnoch: When was this?\n\nLeo: In Munich, in 1945 or 1946.\n\nEnoch: How do you feel about that?\n\nLeo: I did not feel nothing about it. They killed my father, and my mother, my\nbrothers, and my sister. What can I feel about ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2970.0,3000.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/101","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"it? I did not have no feeling.\n\nEnoch: Of all these terrible atrocities that happen to you, what do you\nthink--if this is possible--was the worst experience you had in the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3000.0,3030.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/102","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camps?\n\nLeo: In the camp?\n\nEnoch: In the camps.\n\nLeo: I told you before. I explained when they hit me, they broke my shoulder,\nand they bring me to the Strafe kommando, and when I came to Auschwitz-Birkenau,\nI leaved everything behind me, come out and stayed 24 hours naked. This was the\nworst experience I can ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3030.0,3060.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/103","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"remember. Then, the rest of it, living from day to day.\nWhen one day goes by, another day comes. That is all we lived. We did not know\nif we live another day, always in the fear something could happen to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3060.0,3090.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/104","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us.\n\nEnoch: What were the first signs to you that the war was coming to an end?\n\nLeo: In December 1944, we saw Russian airplanes coming around our camp. They\nthrew down Christmas trees, lighted Christmas trees. All the sky was lighted\nChristmas trees. Then, we heard the surrounding 'boom' of bombs falling. This\nwas the first sign something is happening. This was December ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3090.0,3120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/105","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"1944.\n\nEnoch: Were you able to get any news from the outside world?\n\nLeo: Sometimes you get news from the Poles, from the good ones what worked with\nus. They told us stories sometimes. You know, they did not know it either. It\nwas prohibited to have a radio. You could have a little radio [unintelligible;\n52:25]. It was not the news the Germans was giving you, but ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3120.0,3150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/106","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sometimes you take a\nlittle listen. Somebody comes out to say something for a joke, went out, made a\nbig thing out of it, the English Army beat up the German Army, like this; just stories.\n\nEnoch: Did you know how the war was going for Germany?\n\nLeo: We knew when America went in the war. [In] 1944, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3150.0,3180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/107","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"yes? I guess the Germans\ntold us about it themselves, because they said the Americans started a war with\nus. They started -- like this.\n\nEnoch: Luzer, could you describe how and where you were liberated?\n\nLeo: Yes, I was liberated in the forest. I ran away on the march to the forest.\nMe, and my ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3180.0,3210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/108","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"two cousins, and the one guy laid down in the forest for four days\nand four nights. One time, we hear something on the road. We hear another\nlanguage and a lot of tanks and military equipment goes by. Something is wrong.\nWe start, try to go to the front, to the road. When the Russians saw us, they\ntold us to lift our ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3210.0,3240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/109","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"hands, raise our hands [in the air]. We raised our hands. We\ntold them we are from a concentration camp. They took us on a tank. It was an army just for women. A woman army from Russia took us on a tank. They carried us to a farm. They give us a room to stay, all four of us. The farmer was not there. He was -- We never seen him alive. It was\nlike a big ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3240.0,3270.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/110","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"warehouse with all kinds of food, all kinds of stuff, all kind. The fourth guy which we was liberated with, went with us, he was a butcher. He killed a pig. He took out its liver, took some potatoes, and cooked potatoes and liver, and give us to eat. We got so sick that we just about died. One Russian woman saw us, saw what happened to us, took all four of us and separated, each one another room, and put ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3270.0,3300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/111","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a soldier at the door to watch us, and to change our\nclothes, and change the linens and everything. We all got dysentery. I was so\nsick, I could not even walk on my feet anymore right after the liberation. This Russian woman, this soldier--I do not know if she was a doctor or not--she locked us up in a room for four days or three days, and gave us nothing to eat. I thought, 'We are again in a concentration camp. This is our ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3300.0,3330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/112","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"luck.' Then she comes in here, in the room, with a spoon of rice with a bit of chocolate, cocoa,\nmixed up, and give us one spoon a day, then two spoons, till we got better. We\ngot better. We ran away from this farm. We went back to Lodz. I come to Lodz the\nfirst of February 1945.\n\nEnoch: Why did you go to Lodz?\n\nLeo: Because I was scared to go to Leczyca. Everybody know me in Leczyca. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3330.0,3360.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/113","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Lodz\nis a big city. My cousins used to live in Lodz and I have an uncle used to live\nin Lodz. I went over there and I took an apartment from the German. A German was\nliving in my uncle's apartment. I took it back from him. I threw him out and we\ntook the apartment over.\n\nEnoch: Leo, how did you find out about your family, your mother, your father?\n\nLeo: I went into my city, to Leczyca, and I asked them all the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3360.0,3390.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/114","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"information. They\ntold me the last day of Passover, the 23rd of April, 1943, they took the whole\ncity, all the Jews out to Chelmno. They supposed to kill them over there. I went\nto Chelmno, me and a few guys. I got a picture in Chelmno. It was still in this\nforest, was big [piles of] clothes. There was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3390.0,3420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/115","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"clothes, pots, and pans, pieces of\nclothes from children, from -- I looked around. I tried to find a piece of\nclothes, maybe I find a piece of clothes from my family. I did not find nothing.\nPlenty clothes laying down in a big thing of clothes. I went all over Europe\ntrying maybe I find somebody. I could not find nobody. My family was -- My\nfather comes from a very big ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3420.0,3450.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/116","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"family. There were sixteen children--eight boys and\neight girls. No -- The one survived was in Israel. All the uncles, and aunts,\nand cousins --\n\nEnoch: How do you know that?\n\nLeo: Because I looked around for two years to find somebody. I could not find nobody.\n\nEnoch: Did you find out what happened to them, where they all went? Or could you\nfind out?\n\nLeo: They all were killed.\n\nEnoch: Do you know where?\n\nLeo: My father, and my mother, my sister, and brother, I know where: in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3450.0,3480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/117","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Chelmno.\n\nEnoch: The other relatives?\n\nLeo: The rest, I do not know. Who lived in the city, in Leczyca, in our family,\nall of them got killed there. [They] took them all, like I told you, the last\nday of Passover 1943. They took them over there and they killed them all.\n\nEnoch: Were you in a DP [displaced persons] camp?\n\nLeo: Yes. No, never been in a DP camp. I was in Poland and there were no DP\ncamps over there. I was only in 1945 in Poland.\n\nEnoch: Could you describe the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3480.0,3510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/118","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"years immediately following the war? You went to Lodz.\n\nLeo: Yes.\n\nEnoch: What happened after that?\n\nLeo: We start to do business. My cousin was a textile worker.\n\nEnoch: Textile?\n\nLeo: Textile worker. We went into our cousin what he was on Irish papers. He was\nhiding as a Pole. He help us. He give us the material. He went to those people\nthat have ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3510.0,3540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/119","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"those factories. We make material. We started selling and we make a\nliving. We started to make money. The minute we started to make money, the\nPolish government came to us and put us more taxes like we made. We see what is\ngoing on goes on bad. They started to nationalize the whole thing. You know, the\nCommunists started taking over. I took myself, and packed my few things what I\nhad, and my money, and went to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3540.0,3570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/120","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Germany.\n\nEnoch: What year did you go to Germany?\n\nLeo: In 1945, end of 1945.\n\nEnoch: Still 1945? Continue.\n\nLeo: It was December 1945.\n\nEnoch: And then?\n\nLeo: Then, I come to Germany. I come to Munich. I went into the Wohnungsbau\n[German: housing]. Wohnungsbau is the Department of Housing. They give us, they\nme a room, me and my cousins. Luckily, we got a room in the same house as my\nwife ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3570.0,3600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/121","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"lived. She was living on the third floor and I got a room on the second\nfloor. In this time, in 1945, was still a curfew in Munich. You know, at five\no'clock, you got to be at home. We cannot go out anymore. It was still wartime.\nWe got -- associated together and we got married. That was 1947.\n\nEnoch: You got married in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3600.0,3630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/122","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"1947?\n\nLeo: Forty seven, 8th of March, 1947.\n\nEnoch: In Munich?\n\nLeo: In Munich.\n\nEnoch: And then?\n\nLeo: Then, I still did some business in Munich.\n\nEnoch: What kind of business?\n\nLeo: I had nylon stockings. I got nylon stockings from Americans and sold it to\nwarehouses in Germany, to Cologne, I went to Dusseldorf, to Hamburg, all the big\n-- I make ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3630.0,3660.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/123","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"money.\n\nEnoch: This is 1947 now?\n\nLeo: Nineteen forty six, 1947, 1948, till 1951.\n\nEnoch: And then?\n\nLeo: Then, I come to America in 1951.\n\nEnoch: Where?\n\nLeo: I go to Baltimore, Maryland. My wife has family in Baltimore, Maryland.\nThey sent us papers. We came to America.\n\nEnoch: Leo, what are your feelings today about how the war influenced ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3660.0,3690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/124","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"your life?\n\nLeo: First of all, my life, it must have been from that I am getting sicker and\nweak every day. I think this is from the concentration camp and the past, what I\nwent through. I worked hard here in America, too. I worked here hard, 31 years,\nfrom 1951 to 1982.\n\nEnoch: Did you ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3690.0,3720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/125","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"ever talk about your war experiences?\n\nLeo: Sometimes we come together, our friends come together, we talk about. But\nthey went through the same I did. We talk about it, tell stories one to another.\n\nEnoch: What kind of feelings do you have now and during the war about being Jewish?\n\nLeo: I am still proud I am a Jew. I got to be a Jew. I am born like this ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3720.0,3750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/126","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"and I\nam going to die like this.\n\nEnoch: Did you feel this way in the camps?\n\nLeo: I feel worse in the camp like that. We got punished for being a Jew.\n\nEnoch: It made you stronger?\n\nLeo: Sometimes stronger; sometimes weaker.\n\nEnoch: Did you ever apply and receive war reparations?\n\nLeo: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3750.0,3780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/127","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yes, I receive from Germany, from Germans. I still receive a check every month.\n\nEnoch: How do you feel about this?\n\nLeo: Everything what we can take, we take back from Germany what they did to us.\nI feel not bad. They got to pay for something. They do not pay us their money.\nThey pay us back our money what they took away from ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3780.0,3810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/128","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us--not only money, health,\nand the families, and everything what we had.\n\nEnoch: Do you think it can happen again?\n\nLeo: I hope not.\n\nEnoch: Do you think it can happen again?\n\nLeo: Who knows what is going to happen? [Unintelligible; 1:03:47]\n\nEnoch: What do you think?\n\nLeo: I think this thing what happened to us, could not happen again anymore. It\nis not supposed to happen anymore.\n\nEnoch: You told me how the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3810.0,3840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/129","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"war affected you physically. Does it still affect you\nany other way?\n\nLeo: I still have nightmares about the war, about the concentration camp, about\nmy father, my mother, my family. Always something. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3840.0,3870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/130","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Nervous.\n\nEnoch: Is there anything that you would like to share that I have left out?\n\nLeo: Share what?\n\nEnoch: Anything that you would like to share with me that I have left out?\n\nLeo: What can I share? You want me to tell you some more stories?\n\nEnoch: If something comes to mind.\n\nLeo: When the German comes in, comes into our town, they rob us. The come in the\nmiddle of the night to wake us up. They took away the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3870.0,3900.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/131","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"covers what we had on our\nbeds, took away the clothes -- We was absolutely halb naket [Yiddish: half\nnaked]. What is halb naket in --\n\nEnoch: Free?\n\nLeo: Not free.\n\nBella: Naked.\n\nEnoch: Naked.\n\nLeo: Lawless. No law at all. They did everything what they want with ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3900.0,3930.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/132","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us. We\ncould not do anything. Anybody can come to my house, take everything away from\nme what I had. The other thing I want to share with you is Hitler killed six\nmillion Jews. Between them was my father, my mother, my two brothers, and my\nsister. I hope that the second generation of the Holocaust are going to remember\nthis, what Hitler did to our people, and they ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3930.0,3960.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/133","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"never forget this.\n\nEnoch: How do you feel about what we are doing? How do you feel about answering\nthese questions?\n\nLeo: This is very important, like a storyteller, history, like the beginning,\nlike Haman did to Jews in the old days, in the old times, like the Spanish\nInquisition. You know about that. Everything what ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3960.0,3990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/134","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"has happened to the Jews, we\nhave it written down. I hope this thing going to be written down, too, remember\nwhat has happened. It was [unintelligible Yiddish phrase; 1:06:40] You know what\n[repeated Yiddish phrase] is?\n\nEnoch: Have you returned to Europe since the war?\n\nLeo: Europe? Yes, I been in England and France.\n\nEnoch: To your place where you were born?\n\nLeo: No, I have not been in all the years.\n\nEnoch: To any of the camps?\n\nLeo: No, I have never been there. I have been ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3990.0,4020.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/135","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to Dachau. That was close to Munich.\n\nEnoch: You went to Dachau?\n\nLeo: Yes, it was my wife's camp.\n\nEnoch: Did this help you resolve this in any way?\n\nLeo: This helped me resolve --\n\nEnoch: By going to Dachau, did this help you in any way?\n\nLeo: It did not help me at all. It is just I remember.\n\nEnoch: Why did you not go back? Why did ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4020.0,4050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/136","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you not want to go back to your birth place?\n\nLeo: Why should I go back there? They killed everybody I know there. Everybody\n-- If I go back, it will be more memories what ends up happening. I have not got\nnothing to go back [to], no grave, nothing. Not even a grave I have. They killed\neverybody without no mark at ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4050.0,4080.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/137","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"all.\n\nEnoch: Leo, were you ever called as a witness in any trials that have gone on?\n\nLeo: Yes.\n\nEnoch: Could you tell us about that?\n\nLeo: In 1978, I went to Germany, to Aschaffenburg, for the trial for the SS\npeople. I still have the papers.\n\nEnoch: Tell us ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4080.0,4110.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/138","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"about that.\n\nLeo: I came to the trial and they started asking questions. When I said this\nthing, the Germans killed all my family, they booed me. They booed me in the\ncourt room.\n\nEnoch: They booed you?\n\nLeo: Yes. I could not recognize them at all, but I recognized their picture.\nThey had a lot of old pictures. I recognized ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4110.0,4140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/139","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"who was in the picture because they\nwear the SS uniforms. They went and they got fat, and they got old. I could not\nrecognize them. It was 35 years later. I received a letter from them. They\nreceived ten years. Well, what is ten years? They killed maybe hundreds of\npeople. They only got ten years. That is it.\n\nEnoch: Tell me some more about the trial. How long were you involved with ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4140.0,4170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/140","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"this?\n\nLeo: Three days.\n\nEnoch: What went on?\n\nLeo: They asked me questions. I answered.\n\nEnoch: Were you in the courtroom during any of the other testimony?\n\nLeo: No, they took everybody separate. All the witnesses were separated. After\nme, comes another [witness].\n\nEnoch: How did you feel about giving this testimony? What did you feel?\n\nLeo: I tried to tell them that I am going ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4170.0,4200.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/141","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"on this thing for the cause of that\nthe people should know what has happened. That is all. I know they will not do\nnothing to them.\n\nEnoch: Who was on trial?\n\nLeo: SS people from Jaworzno.\n\nEnoch: You knew these people?\n\nLeo: Sure, I knew them.\n\nEnoch: Did you ever have any personal contact with any of the people that were\non trial?\n\nLeo: What was on trial, no. No personal ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4200.0,4230.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/142","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"contact.\n\nEnoch: Have you been active in the survivor group?\n\nLeo: Active what?\n\nEnoch: Active in the Hemshech in Atlanta.\n\nLeo: I am a member in Hemshech.\n\nEnoch: Let us talk about Israel. How has ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4230.0,4260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/143","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"your experience as a survivor\ninfluenced the way you feel?\n\nLeo: I have been to Israel seven times and I loved every minute I been there. I\nhope to go over there again. The only thing what we have, what we got paid for\nout of it, is Israel. Hopefully it is going to stay forever and ever. We have to\nbe powerful, what Israel has achieved. You been to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4260.0,4290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/144","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Israel? They have a nice\ncountry. The only thing what they want is peace. That is all. If there is going\nto be peace for Israel, it is the best place in the world to live for the Jews.\nIf Israel had been [in existence] in the years 1940 to 1945, just think what\nwould have happened to the Jews, what did happen. Hitler could not do this to\nthe Jews what he did.\n\nEnoch: Why?\n\nLeo: Because we ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4290.0,4320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/145","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"got -- we would have some protection. Nobody -- the whole world\ndid not care what happened to us.\n\nEnoch: Leo Neuhaus, in summary, I would like to say that I know how difficult\nthis is for you, but I also know that you know how important this ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4320.0,4350.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/146","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"is for the\ngenerations to come. Leo Neuhaus, we thank you very much.\n\nLeo: You are very welcome.\n\nEnoch: And we hope that there will be shalom [Hebrew: peace] in Israel and\nshalom in the whole world, too.\n\nLeo: I hope so, too.\n\nEnoch: Thank you very much, again.\n\nLeo: Thank you. Thank you very much. You do very good work. Keep an eye on yourself.\n\nEnoch: Thank ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4350.0,4380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/transcript/63439/annotation/147","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4380.0,4410.0"}]},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Annotations [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/148","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eYiddish is the common historical language of Ashkenazi Jews from Central and Eastern Europe. It is heavily Germanic based but uses the Hebrew alphabet. The language was spoken or understood as a common tongue for many European Jews up until the middle of the twentieth century.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,30.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/149","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eLeczyca [Polish: Łęczyca] Poland is located 38 kilometers (24 miles) northwest of Lodz. In 1939, there were around 4,200 Jews residing in the town.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=30.0,60.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/150","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eYeshiva [Hebrew: sitting] is a Jewish educational institution for religious instruction that is equivalent to high school. It also refers to a Talmudic college for unmarried male students from their teenage years to their early twenties.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=90.0,120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/151","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA cheder is a traditional elementary school teaching the basics of Judaism and the Hebrew language.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=90.0,120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/152","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eOrthodox Judaism is a traditional branch of Judaism that strictly follows the written Torah and the oral law concerning prayer, dress, food, sex, family relations, social behavior, the Sabbath day, holidays, and more.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=120.0,150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/153","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAlso known as Masorti Judaism, Conservative Judaism is a form of Judaism that seeks to preserve Jewish tradition and ritual, but has a more flexible approach to the interpretation of the law than Orthodox Judaism. It attempts to combine a positive attitude toward modern culture, while preserving a commitment to Jewish observance. In general, Conservative congregations also observe gender equality (mixed seating, women rabbis, and bat mitzvah).\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=120.0,150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/154","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBefore the Holocaust, Jews were the largest minority in Poland. In Poland’s major cities, Jews and Poles spoke each other’s languages and interacted in markets and on the streets. Even smaller towns and villages in Poland were, to some extent, mixed communities. That did not mean that antisemitism did not impact the lives of Polish Jews, however. After World War I, Poland had become a democratic independent state and increasing Polish nationalism made Poland a hostile place for many Jews. The antisemitic atmosphere increased in Poland during the 1930s. A series of pogroms and discriminatory laws were signs of growing antisemitism, while fewer and fewer opportunities to emigrate were available. At Polish universities, Jews experienced discrimination and exclusion. An economic boycott of Jewish businesses was in full force by 1937. Wealthy Jews were arrested in 1938 and guards were placed outside Jewish shops to prevent non-Jewish customers from entering them.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=150.0,180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/155","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eWorld War II officially began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on Friday, September 1, 1939. Britain and France responded by declaring war on Germany on September 3. In 1939, Britain and France had signed a series of military agreements with Poland that formed a military alliance based on mutual assistance in case of a military invasion from Germany. The support of Britain and France proved only nominal, however. Within a month, Poland was defeated and was partitioned between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=150.0,180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/156","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eGerman forces first entered Leczyca on September 7, 1939. By September 13, they had driven back the Polish forces and occupied the town.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=180.0,210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/157","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIgnacy Mościcki (1867-1946) was a Polish chemist and politician who was the country's president from 1926 to 1939. He was the President of Poland when Germany invaded the country on September 1, 1939 and started World War II.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=210.0,240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/158","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Nazis’ racial laws were a set of policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the “Aryan race,” and based on a specific racist doctrine, which claimed scientific legitimacy. These policies targeted Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, handicapped people, and others who were labeled as inferior in a racial hierarchy to the “master race” of Germans. In Germany, the Nuremberg Laws were passed on November 15, 1935. They formed the cornerstone of the German Nazi Party’s racial policy and heralded in a new wave of antisemitic legislation that brought about immediate and concrete segregation. They included the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, prohibiting marriages and sexual relations between Jews and Germans, and the Reich Citizenship Law, which stripped Jews of their German citizenship. Allies of the Nazis emulated these laws.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=210.0,240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/159","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eVolksdeutsche\u003cbr\u003e [German: German folk] was a Nazi term used to refer to ethnic Germans living outside of Germany or Austria. \u003cbr\u003eAfter the Germans occupied Poland in September 1939, they established a central registration bureau, called the German Folk List (Deutsche Volksliste, DVL), where they registered Polish citizens of German origin as Volksdeutsche. Poles were greatly encouraged to register themselves, and were sometimes forced to do so. Those who joined this group were given benefits, including better food, and were accorded a special status. They were given apartments, farms, workshops, furniture, and clothing—all stolen from Jews and Poles sent to Nazi camps. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=270.0,300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/160","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Nazis considered Poles to be racially inferior and intended to replace the Polish nation and culture with a German one. A campaign of terror was launched soon after the German invasion and occupation of Poland in September 1939. The aim was to remove those Poles considered most capable of organizing resistance to German rule and reduce the Poles to a leaderless population of peasants and workers laboring for German masters. Thousands of Polish nobility, teachers, priests and other intellectuals were shot in mass killings. Thousands more were sent to concentration camps. The best estimate of non-Jewish Polish civilians killed by the Nazi regime and its collaborators is 1.8 million.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=300.0,330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/161","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eOn September 22, 1939, all Leczyca males aged 16 to 70 were ordered to assemble in the town square. As retribution for the alleged murder of a German officer, 50 Jews (leading members of the community) and 100 Poles (mostly common criminals) were imprisoned. After three weeks the non-Jewish hostages and most of the Jews, with the exception of the rabbi and a few Jewish leaders, were released. The Germans imposed a significant fine on the Jewish community, due by a certain date. A Jewish Council [German: Judenrat] headed by Herzke Muchnik was established to collect the money and the fine was paid on time.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=300.0,330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/162","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBoth the Russian and German armies invaded Poland in September 1939. On September 28, Germany and the Soviet Union reached an agreement partitioning Poland and outlining their zones of occupation. A demarcation line for the partition of German- and Russian-occupied Poland was established along the Bug River, between Krakow and Lvov. It is estimated that the number of refugees who crossed from the German-occupied part of Poland to the areas annexed by the Soviet Union totaled about 300,000. The Russians left the border freely open to traffic until the end of October 1939. From then until the end of 1939 a small number of persons still crossed the border. After that, it was completely sealed. Some refugees still attempted to sneak across the heavily guarded border, often at great danger. Those caught trying to cross between occupation zones or trying to flee without papers faced arrest and arbitrary violence at the hands of both Russian and German border guards. The demarcation line would remain in effect until June 22, 1941, when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in a military campaign codenamed Operation “Barbarossa.”\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=390.0,420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/163","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBialystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=390.0,420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/164","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn December 1939, Jews living on some of the “better” streets of Leczyca were ordered out of their homes for relocation to an area in the northern part of the city—the first step towards a ghetto. Over the following months, all the Jews were concentrated into a closely confined area that served as an open ghetto.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/165","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA ghetto was established in Lodz, Poland in December 1939. In March and April 1940, the Germans encircled the ghetto with a barbed wire and wooden fence. On April 30, the gates closed on its 163,777 residents. Waves of Jews from the surrounding area and Western Europe were pushed into the Lodz ghetto making the total number of Jews who passed through it at over 200,000. Overall, 45,327 people died in the ghetto due to overcrowding and poor conditions. After a series of Aktion, the ghetto was turned into a work camp in September 1942. By August 1944, the ghetto had been completely liquidated.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/166","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eExpulsions from Leczyca began in late 1940. One transport was sent to Czestochowa in December 1940 and a second to Poddebice in January 1941. Jews from the surrounding area were then brought in to the Leczyca ghetto, which was then closed with barbed wire. No one was permitted to leave the area and a strict curfew was enforced within the ghetto. All communal life was suppressed—no prayer services, no cultural programs, no schools, no social interaction, and no trade or business activity were permitted. Disease and death were prevalent due to the lack of fuel and adequate food rations.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/167","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Germans established a Judenrat, a Council of Jewish leaders, in the various ghettos and Jewish communities of Nazi-occupied Europe. They were given the responsibility of implementing the Nazis' policies regarding the Jews, which included everything from the confiscation of electronics like radios and valuable assets like watches or jewelry to organizing forced labor details and groups for deportations.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/168","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eWhen Germany conquered Poland in the autumn of 1939, all Jewish and Polish males between the ages of 18 and 60 were required to perform unpaid forced labor. Each day, the Leczyca Judenrat was ordered to provide a certain number of people for forced labor. People with money could buy their way out of forced labor, but only a few could afford to do so. Forced labor was part of the systematic persecution of Jews but also served as a method for economic gain and to meet the increasingly desperate labor shortages necessary for the war effort. The Nazis subjected millions of people (both Jews and other victim groups) to forced, or slave labor, both inside and outside concentration camps, often under brutal conditions. Forced labor was often pointless and humiliating, and imposed without proper equipment, clothing, nourishment, or rest. Forced labor was often pointless and humiliating, and imposed without proper equipment, clothing, nourishment, or rest.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=480.0,510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/169","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003ePoznan [Polish: Poznań; German: Posen] is located in west-central Poland and the fifth-largest city and one of the oldest cities in Poland. During the German occupation from 1939-1945, the city was incorporated into the Nazi Germany as the capital of Reichsgau Wartheland. The Jewish population prior to World War II was about 2,000.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=510.0,540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/170","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Germans occupied Poland in 1939, many cities, towns, and villages were renamed. The location Leo is referencing appears to be using the German name. It is spelled phonetically but could not be identified as a town or labor camp. The majority of labor camps were small and sometimes are almost unknown. Little documentation exists for many of the temporary camps created for forced labor along the Autobahn.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=540.0,570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/171","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Autobahn is a federal controlled-access highway system in Germany. Construction of the Autobahn was begun before Hitler came to power, but the Nazis appropriated the project and the Autobahn (also called the ReichsAutobahn) became one of the regime’s showpieces. Fritz Todt, an engineer, senior Nazi figure, and founder of Organisation Todt, used conscripted laborers to construct more than 3,000 kilometers (1,900 miles) of roadway between 1933 and 1938. Multiple Autobahn routes were planned in Poland. One ran through northern Poland and was to connect Berlin with Konigsberg [German: Königsberg; today it is known as Kaliningrad, Russia). Another route was to connect Berlin with Poznan. By late 1941, construction on the Autobahn had slowed significantly as focus was shifted to other war-related projects. In 1942, Albert Speer took over Organisation Todt. As the war progressed and available labor became more limited, Organisation Todt became notorious for using forced labor, including Jews.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=540.0,570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/172","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Germans occupied Poland in 1939, many cities, towns, and villages were renamed. The location Leo is referencing appears to be using the German name. It is spelled phonetically but could not be identified as a town or labor camp. The majority of labor camps were small and sometimes are almost unknown. Little documentation exists for many of the temporary camps created for forced labor along the Autobahn.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=660.0,690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/173","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Germans occupied Poland in 1939, many cities, towns, and villages were renamed. The location Leo is referencing appears to be using the German name. It is spelled phonetically but could not be identified as a town or labor camp. The majority of labor camps were small and sometimes are almost unknown. Little documentation exists for many of the temporary camps created for forced labor along the Autobahn.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=720.0,750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/174","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAuschwitz-Birkenau was a network of camps built and operated by Germany just outside the Polish town of Oswiecem (renamed “Auschwitz” by the Germans) in Polish areas annexed by Germany during World War II. Auschwitz was a complex of camps: the Main Camp (Auschwitz I), Auschwitz-Birkenau (Auschwitz II) and Monowitz (Auschwitz III). Many smaller sub-camps were attached to the complex, which drew their labor from the Main Camp and Auschwitz-Birkenau. It is estimated that the SS and police deported at a minimum 1.3 million people (approximately 1.1 million of which were Jews) to the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex between 1940 and 1945. Camp authorities murdered 1.1 million of these prisoners.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=780.0,810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/175","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAdolf Hitler (1889-1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (“leader”) of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=840.0,870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/176","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBy 1943, the war had turned against Germany. Construction on the ReichsAutobahn ceased almost entirely. Thousands of kilometers remained unfinished.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=870.0,900.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/177","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSelection [German: Selektion] is the term the Nazi regime used to describe the process of choosing victims for the gas chambers in the extermination camps by separating them from those considered fit to work. In Auschwitz-Birkenau, selections of Jewish transports took place on three railroad unloading platforms, or ramps. Upon leaving the train cars, two columns of people—one of men and older boys; the other of women and children of both sexes—were led to the camp doctors and other camp functionaries conducting selection. SS doctors made most of the decisions. They judged the people standing before them on sight and, sometimes eliciting a brief declaration as to their age and occupation, decided whether they would live or die. Age was one of the principal criteria for selection. As a rule, all children below 16 years of age and the elderly were sent to die. Of the approximately 1.1 million Jews deported to Auschwitz, about 200 thousand (an average of only 20 percent of new arrivals) were chosen for labor, led into the camp, and registered as prisoners. The remainder (about 900 thousand people) were killed in the gas chambers.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=960.0,990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/178","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eJosef Mengele (1911-1979) was a German SS officer and physician during World War II. He was notorious for being one of the physicians who sorted newly arrived prisoners on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, picking out those he wanted for his medical experiments—especially twins—thus earning him the nickname the “Angel of Death.” Many survivors recall being selected by Mengele, but caution should be used because Mengele only arrived in Auschwitz-Birkenau on May 24, 1943. He fled the camp before the Russians arrived and turned up in Gross-Rosen for a while and a few others camps until he assumed the guise of a Wehrmacht soldier and tried to flee west undetected. However, the Americans, who did not know who he was or what he had done, captured him. He was released in June 1945 and fled to South America. He died in Brazil on February 7, 1979.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/179","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Neu-Dachs concentration camp (commonly called Jaworzno) was one of the largest subcamps of Auschwitz-Birkenau. It was located near Jaworzno, a city in southern Poland, near Katowice. Established in June 1943, the camp held \u003cbr\u003e3,664 prisoners by January 1945. The 15 acre camp was surrounded by electrified barbed-wire fence and guarded by an SS unit of between 200 and 300 men. SS-Obersturmführer Bruno Pfütze was the commandant. Inside were 14 residential barracks, three latrines, a hospital, kitchen, clothing storage, boiler, laundry, and warehouse. Prisoners endured poor living conditions and backbreaking labor in the Dachsgrube coal mine on the outskirts of Jaworzno. Regular selections sent prisoners found unfit for labor back to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were killed.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1230.0,1260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/180","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eMany prisoners attempted to escape from Jaworzno. The result was usually tragic—from the beginning of July to mid-October 1943, the SS shot 11 prisoners attempting to get out. One group of prisoners accused of trying to tunnel out of one of the barracks were sent to Auschwitz I’s infamous Block 11. Following an investigation, 19 prisoners were sentenced to death. They were brought back to Jaworzno and hanged in the roll-call square on December 6, 1944. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1230.0,1260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/181","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKrakow [Polish: Kraków; sometimes also “Cracow”] is the second largest city in Poland, situated on the Vistula River.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1470.0,1500.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/182","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFranz Adolf Lausmann was an ethnic German born in Romania in 1913. He joined the SS in 1941. Lausmann worked as a command leader in the Auschwitz-Birkenau subcamp of Neu-Dachs/Jaworzno, where he was promoted to the rank of SS-Rottenfuhrer in 1944.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/183","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFrom January 17 to 21, 1945, the Germans evacuated Auschwitz-Birkenau and its sub-camps, including Jaworzno. About 400 sick and exhausted prisoners were left behind in the camp while 3,200 prisoners made their way toward Gliwice. Along the way, SS guards shot both the prisoners who tried to escape and those who were too physically exhausted to keep up. Thousands of corpses of the prisoners who were shot or who died of fatigue or exposure to the cold lined the route. In Gliwice, the surviving prisoners were merged with other columns of evacuated prisoners and put onto trains headed for Blechhammer. On January 21, approximately 4,000 Blechhammer prisoners plus another 6,000 from sub-camps including Jaworzno began marching further west. Approximately 800 were killed on the march. On February 2, 1945, survivors finally reached the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, where they remained for five days. Then they boarded a train to Buchenwald. On the way, the train was attacked several times by Allied planes, which caused many deaths. Buchenwald was liberated by American forces on April 11, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1770.0,1800.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/184","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eGleiwitz [Polish: Gliwice] was a German city in 1939. Today, it is a city in southern Poland called “Gliwice.” From March 1944 until January 1945, Gleiwitz was the location of four Auschwitz-Birkenau subcamps, where prisoners worked in mining and industrial companies and railroad repair. As the Soviet Army advanced east, all four camps were evacuated beginning around January 18, 1945. Prisoners were sent on death marches toward the interior of the German Reich. The majority of the marches headed towards the Blechhammer concentration camp. From there, prisoners were sent to Gross-Rosen and then on to Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen and other concentration camps in Germany.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1800.0,1830.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/185","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBlechhammer was a sub-camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau. It was the second largest sub-camp after Monowitz and was established on April 1, 1944. Male and female prisoners were put to work constructing chemical factories. Some of the prisoners were put to work building a synthetic gasoline factory while others in units of 100 to 200 did heavy construction work: excavating foundations, building roads and structures and transporting building materials. On January 21, 1945, the prisoners were marched out of the camp as the Russians drew near and were driven on foot to Gross-Rosen concentration camp. Those who could not keep up were shot. An estimated 800 prisoners were executed in this way on the ten day march.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=1830.0,1860.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/186","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eTo assist in managing the large communities within concentration or labor camps, German authorities installed a hierarchy of administrative units under their control. A kapo was a prisoner in a concentration camp who was assigned by the SS guards to supervise forced labor or carry out administrative tasks in the camp. Kapos were generally criminals. The kapo system minimized costs by allowing the camps to function with fewer SS personnel. It was designed to turn victim against victim, as the kapos were pitted against their fellow prisoners in order to maintain the favor of their SS guards.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2040.0,2070.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/187","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn many ghettos and concentration or extermination camps, music was performed on command as a regular part of the camp’s daily routine. Amateur and professional musicians from among the prisoners formed officially sanctioned orchestras, ensembles, bands, and choirs. The musicians performed as directed by the camp administration. Prisoners sometimes performed for the entertainment of the SS or as background music for work details leaving and returning to camp. Music often accompanied punishments and executions as well. In the extermination camps, prisoners sometimes performed during the selection process or near the crematoriums as a means of deceiving and calming newly arrived prisoners.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2280.0,2310.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/188","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eZyklon B was originally used in Germany before and during World War II for disinfection and pest extermination in ships, buildings and machinery. After the end of August 1941, Zyklon B was used in Auschwitz, first experimentally, and then routinely, as an agent of mass annihilation.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2310.0,2340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/189","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough Jews were the primary victims persecuted by the Nazi party’s policies during World War II, the first German concentration camps were established as detention centers for actual and perceived political opponents (Communists, Social Democrats, Democrats). Other groups singled out by the Nazis included LGBTQ individuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Roma, Poles and other Slavic people, and Jehovah’s witnesses. in Auschwitz-Birkenau, there were at least 4,600 German prisoners. Austrians were included in this category, as were some Poles from territory annexed to the Third Reich.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2310.0,2340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/190","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKashrut is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jews are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, meaning \"fit\" (in this context, \"fit for consumption\").\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2340.0,2370.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/191","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDavening is the act of reciting Jewish liturgical prayers during which the prayer sways or rocks lightly.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2340.0,2370.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/192","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eTefillin\u003cbr\u003e, also called “phylacteries,” are a set of small black leather boxes containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah, which are worn by observant Jews during weekday morning prayers. They are worn around the arm, hand and fingers and on the forehead. The Torah commands that they should be worn as a “sign” and “remembrance” that G-d brought the children of Israel out of Egypt.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/193","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA bar mitzvah [Hebrew: son of commandments] is a rite of passage for Jewish boys aged 13 years and one day. At that time, a Jewish boy is considered a responsible adult for most religious purposes. He is now duty-bound to keep the commandments, he puts on tefillin, and may be counted to the minyan quorum for public worship. He celebrates the bar mitzvah by being called up to the reading of the Torah in the synagogue, usually on the next available Sabbath after his Hebrew birthday.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/194","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eShabbat \u003cbr\u003e(Hebrew) or Shabbos (Yiddish) is the Jewish Sabbath and is observed on Saturdays. Shabbat observance entails refraining from work activities and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Shabbat begins at sundown on Friday night and is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. It is closed the following evening with the recitation of the havdalah blessing.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/195","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBefore the Holocaust, Jews were the largest minority in Poland. On the eve of the German occupation of Poland in 1939, 3.3 million Jews lived there—more than any other country in Europe. Their percentage among the general population—about ten percent—was also the highest in Europe. Only approximately ten percent of Jews in Poland survived the Holocaust. In all, approximately 3,000,000 of a pre-war Jewish population of around 3,300,000 were murdered.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/196","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eYontif refers to a Jewish holiday, especially one on which work is prohibited, and is a term most commonly used among Orthodox Jews.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2400.0,2430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/197","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eYom Kippur [Hebrew: “day of atonement”] The most sacred day of the Jewish year. Yom Kippur is a 25-hour fast day. Most of the day is spent in prayer, reciting yizkor for deceased relatives, confessing sins, requesting divine forgiveness, and listening to Torah readings and sermons. People greet each other with the wish that they may be sealed in the heavenly book for a good year ahead. The day ends with the blowing of the shofar (a ram’s horn).\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2400.0,2430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/198","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eMatzo, or matzah, is an unleavened flatbread that is part of Jewish cuisine and forms an integral element of the Passover festival.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2430.0,2460.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/199","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003ePesach [Hebrew: Passover] is the celebration of Israel’s liberation from Egyptian bondage. The holiday lasts for eight days. Unleavened bread, matzo, is eaten in memory of the unleavened bread prepared by the Israelites during their hasty flight from Egypt, when they had not time to wait for the dough to rise. On the first two nights of Passover, the seder, the central event of the holiday, is celebrated.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2430.0,2460.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/200","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIt was common practice in concentration camps for gold teeth and gold fillings to be removed from victims before their bodies were cremated or buried. Along with other gold valuables such as jewelry, the gold would then be melted down and reused by the German Reich. Allied soldiers found piles of teeth and fillings when they liberated many of the camps.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2610.0,2640.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/201","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIf a woman became pregnant in a ghetto or tried to conceal her condition in a camp, she faced five possible outcomes: miscarriage, abortion, childbirth, euthanasia of the child, or death of both mother and child. In the ghettos, women were preoccupied with daily survival. Starvation, disease, a lack of medical care, and grueling physical labor often prevented pregnancy. Later on, the Germans forbade pregnancy. If a woman did become pregnant, she risked immediate murder or deportation to the death camps. As a rule, there were no children in the camp system and births were almost unknown. Pregnant women and mothers with young children were almost always sent directly to their deaths. Within the camps, women and men were separated, further making pregnancy unlikely.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2610.0,2640.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/202","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring World War II, a number of German physicians conducted medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners. They performed these studies without the consent of the victims, who suffered indescribable pain, mutilation, permanent disability, or, in many cases, death as a result. The unethical experiments carried out may be divided into three categories. One category consists of experiments aimed at facilitating the survival of Axis military personnel. In the second category, experiments were aimed at developing and testing treatment methods, including pharmaceuticals, for injuries or illnesses encountered in the field by German military personnel. The third category sought to advance the racial and ideological tenets of the Nazi Party’s worldview. Josef Mengele’s experiments at Auschwitz-Birkenau are perhaps the most infamous example of such experiments. The most notorious experiments involved freezing, high altitude, poison, tuberculosis, transplants, sterilization, artificial insemination, seawater, and experiments on twins. In all, there were at least 7,000 victims of German medical experiments. At Dachau, experiments centered on malaria, hypothermia and seawater.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2820.0,2850.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/203","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSonderkommando\u003cbr\u003e [German: special command or detail] refers to several types of special units during World War II. The name was assigned to groups of Jewish slave labor units that were employed in the gas chambers and crematoria of extermination camps. Charged with removing the bodies of those gassed for cremation or burial, they were forced to participate in the extermination process. Jewish Sonderkommando units often were rewarded with better food and physical conditions than other inmates, but were also typically executed after a few weeks or months, only to be replaced by a new group of prisoners.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=2880.0,2910.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/204","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring bombing raids in World War II, the Allies would first identify the target area for the bombers by dropping color-coded magnesium flares, called target indicators. Target indicators were available in various colors—including red, yellow, and green—and could be fused for both air and ground burst. They were attached to parachutes and fell slowly, illuminating everything below. When detonated in the air, the green glow they often emanated resembled upside down fir trees. The German population thus referred to target indicators as “Christmas trees.”\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3090.0,3120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/205","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe United States had declared war on Japan following the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, a United States Navy deep-water naval base in Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. Three days later, after Germany and Italy declared war on it, the United States became fully engaged in World War II. Leo seems to be referring to the landing operations on June 6, 1944 (termed ‘D-Day’) of the Allied invasion of Normandy, France during World War II. The Normandy landings have been called the beginning of the end of war in Europe.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3150.0,3180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/206","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter liberation, camp survivors faced a long and difficult road to recovery. Eating foods that were too rich or complex for survivors’ bodies to handle could exasperate years of malnutrition and starvation, resulting in sickness or death.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3270.0,3300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/207","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDysentery is a bacterial infection of the intestines. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3300.0,3330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/208","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eJust after Passover in April 1942, the 1,750 Jews who remained in Leczyca were sent to the Chelmno extermination camp and murdered.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3390.0,3420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/209","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eChelmno was the first death camp in Poland. It was opened in December 1941. It was an experiment to see if bringing the Jews to a site was more efficient that sending the Einsatzgruppen to find them, one community at a time. It was. The Jews were brought to the village of Chelmno to a manor house, where they were told to take off their clothes and leave their belongings. Then they were loaded onto trucks about 50 to 70 at a time. The trucks were specially modified so that the exhaust gas didn’t go out the tailpipe but was directed up into the sealed cargo area where the Jews were loaded. As the truck drove from the village to the camp site where the mass graves were the Jews died of carbon monoxide poisoning or suffocation. When the truck arrived at the forest camp the bodies were unloaded, thrown into the mass graves and then the truck returned for more. It took about 20 minutes to make the one-way trip. Many of the Jews murdered there came from Lodz, which was about 60 miles away as well as many other small Jewish communities in the area. In March 1943, it was closed and the graves dug up, the bodies burned, and the ashes returned to the pits. Then in April 1944 it was opened again briefly to receive and murder the last Jews from Lodz. Altogether, at least 125,000 Jews were murdered there although the number is probably higher.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3390.0,3420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/210","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eWhen hostilities ended on May 8, 1945 in Europe, as many as 100,000 Jewish survivors found themselves among the 7,000,000 uprooted and homeless people classified as displaced persons (DPs). In a chaotic six-month period, 6,000,000 non-Jewish DPs, who had been deported to Germany as forced laborers for the Nazis, wandered through Germany and Eastern Europe toward their homelands. The liberated Jews, who were plagued by illness and exhaustion, emerged from concentration camps and hiding places to discover a world in which they had no place. Bereft of home and family, and reluctant to return to their pre-war homelands, these Jews were joined in a matter of months by more than 150,000 other Jews fleeing fierce antisemitism in Poland, Hungary, Romania and Russia. Allied forces established temporary facilities (DP camps) across Germany, Austria, and Italy to house DPs. From 1945 to 1952, more than 250,000 Jewish displaced persons lived in camps and urban centers in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Allied authorities and the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) administered these facilities. Displaced Jews registered with various aid agencies like UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration), the IRO (International Refugee Organization), or the British Red Cross’ Central Tracing Bureau (which would later be renamed the International Tracing Service) in the hopes of reconnecting with their families. Eventually, DPs were repatriated to their home countries, reestablished themselves in new countries or immigrated outside of Europe. Most of the DP camps were closed by 1950.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3480.0,3510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/211","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Polish government-in-exile, formally known as the “Government of the Republic of Poland in Exile,” was formed in the aftermath of the invasion of Poland in September of 1939 and the subsequent occupation of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union. After the invasion, the Polish government moved to France and later to London. As the first of the Allies to occupy Poland, the Soviets were able to influence the interim government formed in 1945—a government that won Allied recognition over the government-in-exile still based in London. The new communist government solidified its political power in a sham election held in January 1947. Prior to the election, many members of the opposition were arrested or prohibited from running. In the purge that followed the election, the new communist regime replaced any remaining opposition members in office with trusted Stalinists. Poland officially became part of the Soviet sphere of influence. The government-in-exile remained in London until its dissolution in 1990.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3540.0,3570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/212","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAn Affidavit of Support and Sponsorship was among the criteria applicants seeking an entry visa into the United States during the 1930s and 1940s had to meet. This required two sponsors who were United States citizens or had permanent resident status. Sponsors had to provide proof of their financial status (Federal tax returns and an affidavit from their bank and employer) to ensure that the immigrants would not become dependent upon social welfare programs.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3660.0,3690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/213","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBetween 1945 and 1947, the Allied governments enacted various legislation dealing with reparations to be paid to the victims of Nazi oppression. The Jewish Agency presented the first official claim to the Allied governments in September 1945. The Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany (Claims Conference) was established in October 1951 to help with individual claims against Germany arising from the Holocaust. The Claims Conference initially recovered $100 million from West Germany, with direct compensation to Holocaust survivors paid in installments. In 1952, the government of West Germany reached an agreement with the state of Israel and the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany to pay reparations for material losses and injuries incurred during the Holocaust. Three separate German laws, known as the West German Federal Indemnification Laws, were adopted in 1953, 1956, and 1965. They further provided for compensation in the form of one-time payments and monthly pensions to Holocaust survivors. In the years since, other agreements for reparations have also been reached.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3750.0,3780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/214","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe total Jewish population of Europe in 1933 was estimated at about 9.5 million, which was more than 60 percent of the world’s Jewish population. Most European Jews lived in eastern Europe, with about 5.5 million Jews living in Poland and the Soviet Union. By the time the Holocaust and World War II had ended over a decade later, most European Jews—two out of every three—were dead. The best and most commonly accepted estimate of Jewish victims is six million, with approximately three million of those from Poland and 1,340,000 of those from the Soviet Union. The Holocaust is the best documented case of genocide, yet calculating how many individuals were killed during the Holocaust and World War II as a result of Nazi policies is difficult as no single document exists which spells out how many died. To accurately estimate the extent of human losses, scholars, governmental agencies and Jewish organizations since the 1940s have relied on a variety of records including census reports, captured archives, and postwar investigations. The best and most commonly accepted estimate of Jewish victims is six million. Among the estimated six million Jews killed during the Holocaust, Germany and its collaborators killed around 1.5 million Jewish children. Children were not specifically singled out because they were children, but because of their alleged membership in dangerous racial, biological, or political groups. Tens of thousands of Romani, between 5,000 and 7,000 German children with physical and mental abilities living in institutions, as well as many Polish children and children living in the German-occupied Soviet Union were also killed during the Holocaust.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3930.0,3960.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/215","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHaman is a biblical character in the Book of Esther. He is considered to be an archetype of evil. He planned to destroy the Jews of Persia, but was thwarted by Esther.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3960.0,3990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/216","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eCatholic monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile established the Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the “Spanish Inquisition,” in 1478. It was originally intended to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted to Catholicism from Judaism and Islam. Those Jews who converted were called conversos (converts), and were regarded with deep suspicion by the tribunal. Eventually, all Jews who refused to convert were totally expelled from Spain in 1492. The figures vary dramatically from 800,000 to more modern figures of 40,000 (with about 40,000 Jews converting to avoid expulsion). The Jews immigrated first to Portugal (which in turn expelled them in 1497), and then to North Africa. Some went to Italy, Greece, and other places in Europe. These became the “Sephardim.” The conversos who remained in Spain were heavily persecuted, and, if accused and convicted of being a “crypto-Jew,” were often burned at the stake. Other minorities suffered as well.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=3960.0,3990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/217","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEstablished on March 22, 1933, Dachau was the first concentration camp established by the Nazi regime. It was located in southern Germany near the town of Dachau, about 10 miles northwest of Munich. Over 188,000 prisoners passed through Dachau between 1933 and 1945. Prisoners at Dachau were used as forced laborers and tens of thousands were literally worked to death. The Dachau concentration camp operated a vast network of 140 subcamps. Most of these subcamps were in southern Bavaria, in close proximity to armaments factories. American troops liberated the camp on April 29, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4020.0,4050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/218","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the immediate postwar years, the Allies had rapidly moved to deal with Nazi war criminals. Two major trials took place in 1947 and in 1963-1965 for former officials and various other personnel in the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex of camps. However, the vast majority were never brought to justice. In 1947, Polish officials tried a handful of guards from the Jaworzno sub-camp. Most received prison sentences of only 3 to 4 years. In September 1977, a trial began for two former SS men who had served in Jaworzno, Hans Olejak and Ewald Pansegrau. The trial was held in Aschaffenburg, a town in central Germany near Frankfurt am Main. They were charged with murdering 21 prisoners in the camp. Over 150 witnesses testified in the course of the three year trial. After so many years had passed, however, the court was skeptical of survivor testimonies. In 1980, both were acquitted. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4080.0,4110.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/219","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEternal Life-Hemshech is an organization of Atlanta Holocaust survivors, their descendants and friends dedicated to commemorating the 6,000,000 Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Approximately 100 Holocaust survivors living in Atlanta, Georgia founded Eternal Life-Hemshech in 1964. Hemshech is a Hebrew word that means “continuation.” Their purpose was to \"perpetuate the memory of their beloved families along with all of the six million Jewish victims of the Holocaust.\" The group wanted the memorial to serve as a place to say Kaddish, the Jewish prayer for the dead. The Memorial to Six Million was dedicated in Atlanta’s Greenwood Cemetery in 1965.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4230.0,4260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/220","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter \u003cbr\u003eWorld War I, Britain took over Palestine. Although protested by the Arab states, the League of Nations authorized the British mandate over Palestine. To appease the Arabs, Britain strictly limited Jewish immigration to Palestine in the years leading up to World War II and throughout the Holocaust. In the aftermath of the Holocaust, many survivors felt there was no future for Jews in Europe. Israeli statehood represented hope to survivors who longed for a homeland where Jews would not be a vulnerable minority. On May 14, 1948—the day the British Mandate over Palestine expired—Israel became a state, opening the possibility for European Jews to immigrate.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4230.0,4260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/annotation_set/1271/annotation/221","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn the years leading up to World War II, many countries, including the United States, had immigration quotas that prevented many Jews from leaving Europe. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=4320.0,4350.0"}]},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Neuhaus, Leo [Index]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/222","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Background and Childhood","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/223","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Leo talks about his family, hometown, education, and life before the war.","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Synopsis"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/224","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Today is March 1, 1983. Please tell us your full name.","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Partial Transcript"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/225","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Leo Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Luzer Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Atlanta, Georgia","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"liberation","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Leczyca, Poland","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Poland","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Lodz, Poland","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yehoshua Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Reina Leya Khabenski Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Mendel Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Reuven Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Nechah Neuhaus","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"yeshiva","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Cheder","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"public school","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"business administration school","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"World War II","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"World War, 1939-1945","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Orthodox Judaism","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Conservative Judaism","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"non-Jews—Polish","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Jews—Polish","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Antisemitism—Prewar","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Jews—Poland","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Holocaust","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945) – Europe – Personal narratives","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945)","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=0.0,170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/226","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"War Begins","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=170.0,468.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/227","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Leo describes the beginning of the war.","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Synopsis"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041#t=170.0,468.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/114678/file/218041/index/81301/annotation/228","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"The war started in 1939, August 1939. 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