{"@context":"http://iiif.io/api/presentation/3/context.json","id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/iiif/1c1td9nd8h/manifest","type":"Manifest","label":{"en":["Nathan, Sophie"]},"logo":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/082/original/TheBreman_SecondaryMark_Horizontal_Blue_Black.png?1713640889","metadata":[{"label":{"en":["Date"]},"value":{"en":["1983-08-14 (creation)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Format"]},"value":{"en":["Video"]}},{"label":{"en":["Source"]},"value":{"en":["William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum","Esther and Hebert Taylor Oral History Collection","Jewish Oral History Project of Atlanta"]}},{"label":{"en":["Description"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eSophie Nathan was interviewed by Mark Popowski on August 14, 1983 in Atlanta, Georgia.\u003c/p\u003e (general)","\u003cp\u003eSophie Nathan was born in the small town of Emmerich, Germany on November 7, 1921. Sophie and her younger sister, Emmi, were raised in a Conservative Jewish home by their parents, George and Thea Nathan. George was a successful businessman running his own business. Other family members, uncles, aunts and cousins lived in various other parts of Germany. Growing up, Sophie wanted to be a children’s nurse. Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power when Sophie was in high school and her non-Jewish friends soon deserted her. After the introduction of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, Sophie found herself having to do more domestic chores, as Jewish families were restricted from hiring help. Other Jewish families soon began to leave Emmerich. After graduating high school in 1938, Sophie studied in Cologne for a year. After Kristallnacht, Sophie’s father was briefly imprisoned. Returning home in May of 1939, Sophie had difficulty finding work. Through an uncle who lived in Hannover, she found work caring for children in a preparation camp for youth going to Israel. At that time, World War II started and Sophie experienced the horrors of the Allied air raids.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSophie and her family soon heard reports of Polish Jews being deported from Germany. Family members living in Belgium were also deported to a camp in southern France. In November 1941, her parents received deportation orders and Sophie returned to Emmerich once more. In December, the family reported to the local railway station, where they were sent to Dusseldorf, Germany. From Dusseldorf, they were put on a transport of around 1,000 Jews and sent to Riga, Latvia. Interred in a ghetto, they found evidence that the previous occupants had made a hurried departure. Life in the ghetto was hard, the weather was exceptionally cold, and there was very little food. Around them, people begin to disappear amid rumors of mass gassings and shootings. Sophie and Emmi were pressed into slave labor, sorting belongings taken from murdered Latvian Jews. In May 1942, Sophie’s father passed away from complications of frostbite in his feet. The hospital in the ghetto had no medication to treat his injuries. Sophie and her sister were employed in various tasks, including shoveling snow on the railroads and as housekeepers for German officers. During this time, the Latvian people smuggled food to them. The work crews were paraded past prisoners hanging on gallows as they came and went from the ghetto. This served as a continual reminder of the punishment for breaking the rules. In the summer and fall of 1942, Sophie worked in the nearby peat fields. The Germans began to thin the ghetto population by selecting prisoners to send to the nearby Kaiserwald concentration camp. Sophie was only narrowly saved from a selection when her mother convinced a soldier to let Sophie come work with her and Emmi for the army instead. The same soldier later saved Sophie’s mother from another selection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs the tide of war turned and the Russian Army closed in from the East, the prisoners in Riga were evacuated to Libau, Latvia. Then in February of 1945, they were sent by boat to Hamburg, Germany. There, they were interred in Fuhlsbuttel prison under heavy Allied air attacks. In April, the prisoners were sent on a death march of approximately 60 miles to Kiel, Germany, to a camp Sophie describes as the worst one she endured. They were made to work on lice infested blankets and there were no facilities for prisoners to clean themselves. Many people died in Kiel in the closing days of the war and her mother became desperately ill.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn May 1, 1945, the prisoners were suddenly told to prepare for evacuation. Although certain that it was a rouse; they were loaded onto white buses with red crosses and taken over the Danish border, given food, and put on a train to Copenhagen. From Copenhagen, they were taken to Malmo, Sweden. In Malmo, the Red Cross and the local Jewish community welcomed the liberated prisoners. Sophie, her mother, and her sister began the long road to recovery. The family reconnected with an aunt and uncle living in Stockholm and Sophie and her sister soon began working as maids. In due course, other family members in the United States sent the money and the paperwork needed to immigrate. Sophie, Thea, and Emmi arrived in the US in April 1946. They settled in Montgomery, Alabama, where Sophie worked as a clerk. Sophie married another immigrant (Henry Nathan) from her hometown and had two sons. Sophie passed away in 2002.\u003c/p\u003e (bioghist)","\u003cp\u003eSophie talks about life in Germany as a young girl and her goals for the future. She describes how life became progressively more difficult for Jews as Hitler and the Nazis consolidated their power, the increased isolation she experienced at school, and the limited options available to her when she graduated. Sophie recalls Jews fleeing from Germany. She describes Kristallnacht and her father’s arrest. She recounts working in Hanover when World War II breaks out and experiencing Allied bombing campaigns. Sophie recalls being deported to a ghetto in Riga, Latvia. She describes how life became more and more difficult. She recalls her father’s experience in the ghetto hospital and his eventual death. She recounts the various jobs she and her sister worked. Sophie explains how she survived a selection and came to work for the army with her mother and sister. Sophie retraces the evacuation to Libau, Latvia and then to Hamburg and Kiel in Germany during heavy air raids as the Allies advanced. Sophie describes the brutal conditions they endured in Kiel before suddenly being evacuated. Sophie recounts the kindness they received when Red Cross buses delivered them to Denmark and a train and ferry carried them on to liberation in Sweden. Restored to health, Sophie describes the challenges of contacting family and finding work after the war. She explains how she, her sister, and her mother managed to arrange passage to the United States in 1946. In the US, Sophie maintained contact with other survivors. Sophie describes herself as a champion of Israel. Finally, she reflects on her feelings about Germany today, the impact the war has had on her life and her faith, and why it is important to share her story.\u003c/p\u003e (scope content)"]}},{"label":{"en":["Source Metadata URI"]},"value":{"en":["https://archivesspace.thebreman.org/repositories/2/archival_objects/28025"]}},{"label":{"en":["Rights Statement"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, recorded by any information storage and retrieval system, without the express written consent of the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum.\u003c/p\u003e"]}},{"label":{"en":["Subject"]},"value":{"en":["Sophie Nathan (personal name)","Emmi Nathan (personal name)","George Nathan (personal name)","Thea Nathan (personal name)","Eduard Roschmann (personal name)","Fitz Moritz Warburg (personal name)","Kurt Krause (personal name)","Heinrich Himmler (personal name)","Adolf Hitler (personal name)","Emmerich, Germany (geographic term)","Cologne, Germany (geographic term)","Hannover, Germany (geographic term)","Kiel, Germany (geographic term)","Hamburg, Germany (geographic term)","Dusseldorf, Germany (geographic term)","Riga, Latvia (geographic term)","Israel (geographic term)","Copenhagen, Denmark (geographic term)","Malmo, Sweden (geographic term)","World War II (topical term)","Holocaust (topical term)","Nuremberg Laws (topical term)","Kristallnacht (topical term)","Yom Kippur (topical term)","Arbeitserzeihungslager Nordmark (topical term)","German Jews (topical term)","German Ghetto (topical term)","Latvian Jews (topical term)","Latvian Ghetto (topical term)","Riga Ghetto (topical term)","Libau Concentration Camp (topical term)","Kaiserwald Concentration Camp (topical term)","German Jewish Police (topical term)","Stutthoff (topical term)","Kommandos (topical term)","Liberation (topical term)","German Reparations (topical term)","Kommandant (topical term)","Schutzstaffel (corporate name)","Joint Distribution Committee (corporate name)"]}}],"summary":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eSophie Nathan was interviewed by Mark Popowski on August 14, 1983 in Atlanta, Georgia.\u003c/p\u003e","\u003cp\u003eSophie Nathan was born in the small town of Emmerich, Germany on November 7, 1921. Sophie and her younger sister, Emmi, were raised in a Conservative Jewish home by their parents, George and Thea Nathan. George was a successful businessman running his own business. Other family members, uncles, aunts and cousins lived in various other parts of Germany. Growing up, Sophie wanted to be a children’s nurse. Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power when Sophie was in high school and her non-Jewish friends soon deserted her. After the introduction of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, Sophie found herself having to do more domestic chores, as Jewish families were restricted from hiring help. Other Jewish families soon began to leave Emmerich. After graduating high school in 1938, Sophie studied in Cologne for a year. After Kristallnacht, Sophie’s father was briefly imprisoned. Returning home in May of 1939, Sophie had difficulty finding work. Through an uncle who lived in Hannover, she found work caring for children in a preparation camp for youth going to Israel. At that time, World War II started and Sophie experienced the horrors of the Allied air raids.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSophie and her family soon heard reports of Polish Jews being deported from Germany. Family members living in Belgium were also deported to a camp in southern France. In November 1941, her parents received deportation orders and Sophie returned to Emmerich once more. In December, the family reported to the local railway station, where they were sent to Dusseldorf, Germany. From Dusseldorf, they were put on a transport of around 1,000 Jews and sent to Riga, Latvia. Interred in a ghetto, they found evidence that the previous occupants had made a hurried departure. Life in the ghetto was hard, the weather was exceptionally cold, and there was very little food. Around them, people begin to disappear amid rumors of mass gassings and shootings. Sophie and Emmi were pressed into slave labor, sorting belongings taken from murdered Latvian Jews. In May 1942, Sophie’s father passed away from complications of frostbite in his feet. The hospital in the ghetto had no medication to treat his injuries. Sophie and her sister were employed in various tasks, including shoveling snow on the railroads and as housekeepers for German officers. During this time, the Latvian people smuggled food to them. The work crews were paraded past prisoners hanging on gallows as they came and went from the ghetto. This served as a continual reminder of the punishment for breaking the rules. In the summer and fall of 1942, Sophie worked in the nearby peat fields. The Germans began to thin the ghetto population by selecting prisoners to send to the nearby Kaiserwald concentration camp. Sophie was only narrowly saved from a selection when her mother convinced a soldier to let Sophie come work with her and Emmi for the army instead. The same soldier later saved Sophie’s mother from another selection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs the tide of war turned and the Russian Army closed in from the East, the prisoners in Riga were evacuated to Libau, Latvia. Then in February of 1945, they were sent by boat to Hamburg, Germany. There, they were interred in Fuhlsbuttel prison under heavy Allied air attacks. In April, the prisoners were sent on a death march of approximately 60 miles to Kiel, Germany, to a camp Sophie describes as the worst one she endured. They were made to work on lice infested blankets and there were no facilities for prisoners to clean themselves. Many people died in Kiel in the closing days of the war and her mother became desperately ill.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn May 1, 1945, the prisoners were suddenly told to prepare for evacuation. Although certain that it was a rouse; they were loaded onto white buses with red crosses and taken over the Danish border, given food, and put on a train to Copenhagen. From Copenhagen, they were taken to Malmo, Sweden. In Malmo, the Red Cross and the local Jewish community welcomed the liberated prisoners. Sophie, her mother, and her sister began the long road to recovery. The family reconnected with an aunt and uncle living in Stockholm and Sophie and her sister soon began working as maids. In due course, other family members in the United States sent the money and the paperwork needed to immigrate. Sophie, Thea, and Emmi arrived in the US in April 1946. They settled in Montgomery, Alabama, where Sophie worked as a clerk. Sophie married another immigrant (Henry Nathan) from her hometown and had two sons. Sophie passed away in 2002.\u003c/p\u003e","\u003cp\u003eSophie talks about life in Germany as a young girl and her goals for the future. She describes how life became progressively more difficult for Jews as Hitler and the Nazis consolidated their power, the increased isolation she experienced at school, and the limited options available to her when she graduated. Sophie recalls Jews fleeing from Germany. She describes Kristallnacht and her father’s arrest. She recounts working in Hanover when World War II breaks out and experiencing Allied bombing campaigns. Sophie recalls being deported to a ghetto in Riga, Latvia. She describes how life became more and more difficult. She recalls her father’s experience in the ghetto hospital and his eventual death. She recounts the various jobs she and her sister worked. Sophie explains how she survived a selection and came to work for the army with her mother and sister. Sophie retraces the evacuation to Libau, Latvia and then to Hamburg and Kiel in Germany during heavy air raids as the Allies advanced. Sophie describes the brutal conditions they endured in Kiel before suddenly being evacuated. Sophie recounts the kindness they received when Red Cross buses delivered them to Denmark and a train and ferry carried them on to liberation in Sweden. Restored to health, Sophie describes the challenges of contacting family and finding work after the war. She explains how she, her sister, and her mother managed to arrange passage to the United States in 1946. In the US, Sophie maintained contact with other survivors. Sophie describes herself as a champion of Israel. Finally, she reflects on her feelings about Germany today, the impact the war has had on her life and her faith, and why it is important to share her story.\u003c/p\u003e"]},"requiredStatement":{"label":{"en":["Attribution"]},"value":{"en":["\u003cp\u003eAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, recorded by any information storage and retrieval system, without the express written consent of the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum.\u003c/p\u003e"]}},"provider":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/aboutus","type":"Agent","label":{"en":["William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum"]},"homepage":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/","type":"Text","label":{"en":["William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum"]},"format":"text/html"}],"logo":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/organizations/logo_images/000/000/082/original/TheBreman_SecondaryMark_Horizontal_Blue_Black.png?1713640889","type":"Image"}]}],"thumbnail":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/collection_resource_files/thumbnails/000/098/549/small/Sophie_Nathan.png?1619301384","type":"Image","format":"image/png"}],"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549","type":"Canvas","label":{"en":["Media File 1 of 1 - Nathan_Sophie.mp4"]},"duration":5593.624,"width":640,"height":360,"thumbnail":[{"id":"https://d9jk7wjtjpu5g.cloudfront.net/collection_resource_files/thumbnails/000/098/549/small/Sophie_Nathan.png?1619301384","type":"Image","format":"image/png"}],"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/content/1","type":"AnnotationPage","items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/content/1/annotation/1","type":"Annotation","motivation":"painting","body":{"id":"https://aviary-p-thebreman.s3.wasabisys.com/collection_resource_files/resource_files/000/098/549/original/Nathan_Sophie.mp4?1602580066","type":"Video","format":"video/mp4","duration":5593.624,"width":640,"height":360},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549","metadata":[]}]}],"annotations":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Nathan, Sophie [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/1","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"POPOWSKI: My name is Mark Popowski. Today's date is August 14, 1983. I am\ndoing this interview in Atlanta, Georgia. What is your full name please?\n\nNATHAN: Sophie Nathan.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Your address?\n\nNATHAN: 118 Windsor Drive, Montgomery, Alabama.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Your date of birth?\n\nNATHAN: November 7, 1921.\n\nPOPOWSKI: How old were you at the time of your liberation?\n\nNATHAN: In 1945, I ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=0.0,30.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/2","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"was 24 . . . not quite 24.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You were then approximately 19 or 20 years old at the beginning of the war?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Before the war, had you made up your mind as to the type of profession\nyou wished to pursue?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, I wanted to become a children's nurse. The school ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=30.0,60.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/3","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"system in Germany\nis different from here. We had to have . . . I could just go six years of high\nschool but it gave me a diploma and from there on . . . I wanted to become a\nchildren's nurse. They told me I had to have a year of what you would call here\n'home economics.' I went to Cologne for a year. My parents sent me there. When I\nwas through with this year, the only school that was open for that was in\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=60.0,90.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/4","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Berlin. I was not allowed to travel to Berlin.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What is your present occupation?\n\nNATHAN: I work as a clerk.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What city were you born in?\n\nNATHAN: In Emmerich.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was that considered an urban area or a rural area--a country area, a\nsmall town, or a village?\n\nNATHAN: It was a small town.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Who comprised your immediate family before the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=90.0,120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/5","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"war?\n\nNATHAN: My parents, my sisters, myself . . . I had uncles, and aunts, and cousins.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were they all living in Emmerich?\n\nNATHAN: No, we were the only ones, the only family. They were living in\ndifferent parts of Germany.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What would you consider your social status before the war? Was it\nupper class, middle class . . .\n\nNATHAN: Middle class.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What type of economic status ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=120.0,150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/6","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"was your family? What type of business\nwere they involved in?\n\nNATHAN: My father was a merchant.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Would you consider your family to have been educated?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: To the university level or . . .\n\nNATHAN: No, not quite . . . but college . . . I don't know the difference\nbetween them.\n\nPOPOWSKI: It was a high school . . . a Gymnasium or . . .\n\nNATHAN: That's right, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=150.0,180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/7","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Before the war, what were your family's religious convictions? Were\nyou religious?\n\nNATHAN: Conservative.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Conservative?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. We did keep a kosher home. Of course, after Hitler came it was\nvery, very hard. We couldn't anymore.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You did have a . . .\n\nNATHAN: A conservative . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: . . . a strong Jewish identity?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, we did.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Before the war, did you have a lot of contact--you and your\nfamily--with non-Jews?\n\nNATHAN: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=180.0,210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/8","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yes, we did . . . It stopped while we were going to school because\nHitler started in 1933.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Let me expand. You said that your father was a merchant. Did he have a\nstore that he did a lot of business with non-Jews or . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, he did. Not as a storekeeper, but as a middleman.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Before the war did you experience very much ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=210.0,240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/9","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"antisemitism?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, while I was going to school.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Can you distinguish between antisemitism before and after Hitler's\nrise to power? Do you remember back that far? Can you make that distinguishment?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, I can. Once I was in high school . . . this was after 1933 . . . at\nfirst I had girlfriends, because girls and boys were in separate ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=240.0,270.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/10","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"schools. As the\nHitler Youth got stronger, they tore away from me. In fact, I didn't have any\nfriends anymore but for the few Jewish girls that were there.\n\nPOPOWSKI: The town you were from--Emmerich--how many Jews were there in that town?\n\nNATHAN: 1939, there were about 30 families, maybe 100 people . . . in my time.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You were basically in a definite minority in this small ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=270.0,300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/11","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"town?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You said your girlfriends drew away from you as the Hitler Youth\nbecame a more significant part of Hitler's Germany. Before that, what was life\nlike for you in this town--as far as a Jew was concerned?\n\nNATHAN: There was really no difference because it was very strongly ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=300.0,330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/12","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Catholic.\nThe Catholics . . . they didn't make that much difference. Now . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you say, 'That much difference' . . .\n\nNATHAN: Between a Jew and a Catholic because . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: In other words, because you didn't feel any particular . . .\n\nNATHAN: Discrimination? No, we didn't. We went to Catholic kindergarten . . . We\nknew very much we were Jews, but there was no ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=330.0,360.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/13","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"difference as far as contact with\nchildren was concerned.\n\nPOPOWSKI: If you could, as much as you can remember, give us a sequence of\nevents as things got worse for Jews. In other words, from the time when you felt\nthat you were not discriminated against. If you could just sort of give us a\nbrief timeline of how things sort of progressed.\n\nNATHAN: I think once the Nuremberg Laws came out in 1935--I think. I don't ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=360.0,390.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/14","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"know\nexactly--because by then you couldn't have any household help anymore. Then, of\ncourse, after the Kristallnacht in 1938. That's when the Jewish stores were\nbroken into, and destroyed, and everything.\n\nPOPOWSKI: If you could tell ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=390.0,420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/15","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us, what did the Nuremberg Laws . . . how did they\naffect you? What were they?\n\nNATHAN: The only way they really affected us . . . my mother used to have help\nat home. Then, of course, you couldn't have any hired in help anymore. It\naffected us in a way that we helped more at home and things like that. But we\nwere children still. I was 12, 13, 14 years old. At that time in Germany, you\nwere a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=420.0,450.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/16","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"child. Then I graduated high school in 1936. Really wanted to go on. You\nhad to go on three more years to be able to enter a university. The school was\nrun by nuns. The last three years were in a different city where I would have to\ncommute. My mother went to the school to see if I could go on for the next three\nyears. The nuns told her 'no.' They could not take a Jewish ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=450.0,480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/17","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"child. Then I went\nto Cologne in 1936 and stayed there for . . . no, this was 1938. Was 1938. . . I\ngraduated high school. I went on to Cologne. My father was still able to go\nabout his business by that time. But then after the Kristallnacht, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=480.0,510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/18","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"they took him\naway and put him in prison in this little town that we were in. Across the\nstreet from us were Jewish merchants. There were two single ladies . . . they\nhad taken the son of one of the ladies and sent him to Dachau. We found out\nlater on they put my father in prison because they didn't want him to give any\nadvice to these ladies--what to do about their store. They took it away from\nthem anyhow. After that, they took my father's license away ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=510.0,540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/19","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"too. I came home in\nMay of 1939 and was trying to find work somewhere. I had an uncle that lived\nclose to Hannover, where there was a Jewish home for children that could not go\nto school anymore in little places in Germany. It was also a preparation camp\nfor youth that wanted to go to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=540.0,570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/20","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Israel--Hachshera. I went there to take care of\nthese children: to see that they went to school, that they were dressed, that\nthey went to eat, and things like that. I stayed there until November of 1941\nbecause then I knew my parents had got their papers to be deported. I went home.\n\nPOPOWSKI: If I can back up a second, do you remember anything specifically about\nKristallnacht? Do you remember ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=570.0,600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/21","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the reaction of the Jews in your city or the Jews\nyou were around at the time?\n\nNATHAN: I was in Cologne at the time. To this day . . . we were . . . we went\nway up on a balcony. To this day, I can see the synagogues burning . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: In Cologne?\n\nNATHAN: In Cologne, yes. My parents were . . . maybe 120 miles away or\nsomething. I tried to get through by telephone and couldn't reach them. I didn't\nknow what was going on at all. I had uncles living in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=600.0,630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/22","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Cologne and they just\nleft. They went over the border. They went to Belgium. I don't think I will ever\nforget that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there a lot of people that . . . I understand that you were young\nat that point in time. When did people first decide that they should leave\nGermany if they could? Do ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=630.0,660.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/23","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you remember? Do you recollect that people were\nleaving and trying to get out? When did that first start?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. In our town, about 1936. My husband was one of the first. He and\nhis sister left because they had family. My father-in-law was more foresighted\nthan my own father. They had family in the States. In fact, my mother-in-law had\ntwo brothers here. My husband was 15 years old and he couldn't finish ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=660.0,690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/24","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"school.\nThey just made it unbearable for him. He left school. Then, about six months\nlater, he and his sister came to the United States. That was 1936. A year later,\nmy in-laws came over. Then the other daughter and her family, her husband came\nover. Then some other people left. A cousin of my husband went to South America.\nI wanted to go to Israel and my father wouldn't let me. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=690.0,720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/25","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Others left from this\nlittle town. When we were deported there were 16 of us. There were some\nleft--some older people--that they just . . . whatever happened to them I don't\nknow. It started around 1936 because they were the first ones to leave from this\nlittle town.\n\nPOPOWSKI: The people that remained behind . . . did they just feel that it was\ngoing to get better or . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: The only thing I can tell you: my father used to say, \"I was born in\nthis little town. I grew ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=720.0,750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/26","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"up with everybody. Nobody is going to harm me.\"--which,\nof course, proved wrong. Then after 1938, after the Kristallnacht, he was ready\nto leave but then our quota number for America was too high. We couldn't get in.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When the war actually started, you said you were about 19?\n\nNATHAN: It started in 1939.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You were about 19?\n\nNATHAN: Eighteen years old.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What were your first memories of the war, the actual ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=750.0,780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/27","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"war . . . your\nfirst memories or impressions?\n\nNATHAN: I was away from home . . . We were closer to the Polish border than my\nhometown was. I remember we had to evacuate one certain building in this complex\nwhere I was. I remember the bombs falling and spending nights in the bunkers\nwith the children. In fact, we had made a whole basement into ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=780.0,810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/28","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sleeping quarters\nfor the children. I can remember going night after night after night. This was\nin 1939 and 1940, 1941 . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: This was Emmerich?\n\nNATHAN: No, this was close to Hannover . . . I was away from home almost from\n1938 on and just came back to Emmerich in 1941 because my parents had gotten\ntheir papers . . . to be deported.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When the war ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=810.0,840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/29","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"first started, or as in this particular case, from the\ntime that things got very difficult for the Jews, I imagine Nuremburg and then\nthe Kristallnacht, were there any of your gentile friends or neighbors that made\nefforts to try and help you? What was their reaction? I know you said your\ngirlfriends sort of . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, but . . . where my parents lived . . . the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=840.0,870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/30","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"house next door, we had\na common window . . . there was a common wall with the next door neighbors. In\nGermany, everything was rationed at the time. Jewish people wouldn't get coffee,\nwhich was very hard to get in Germany anyhow. But these neighbors helped my\nparents--now, that I have to say--and there were others. They were scared. I\nmean, they wouldn't come into the front door because they didn't want to be\nseen. But they did throw groceries through this common ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=870.0,900.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/31","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"window. I myself was away\nfrom my hometown. I was just amongst Jewish people then.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there any attempts where you were at for people to help . . . I\nrealize you were amongst Jews, were there any non-Jews that were sympathetic to\nyour cause to the point where they could help you out?\n\nNATHAN: Not that I remember. Not that I know of. No, because we didn't have any\ncontact there with non-Jewish people. It was like . . . a big ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=900.0,930.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/32","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camp. Everybody\nwas Jewish--I mean as far as kitchen help, everybody.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In that particular situation in Hannover, I don't believe I understand\nhow you got in . . . associated with that particular group of Jews. Did it just\nso happen that you were in Hannover and they . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: No, it was . . . my uncle knew the director. He got me the job, because\nyou couldn't find jobs in Germany.\n\nPOPOWSKI: This place being ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=930.0,960.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/33","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"a . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: It was a preparation camp for Israel. It also was . . . the children\nfrom small cities couldn't go to school anymore . . . they were in this\nparticular home where they went to school. There was a school connected with it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: It provided education for the Jewish children and it also was a\npreparatory for . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Israel, yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You said then in 1941 ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=960.0,990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/34","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you went back to Emmerich?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: At that time, you were reunited with your parents. What happened then,\nin 1941? Why did you go back and then what happened?\n\nNATHAN: Because my parents . . . we had heard of transports . . . In fact, while\nI was in Hannover, at the time there were Polish Jews living in Hannover. We had\nheard of a transport going to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=990.0,1020.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/35","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Poland in 1940. I had family that was in Belgium\nand they were sent to the southern part of France into a camp. My parents had\nbeen told that they were going to be transported to Riga. This must have been in\nNovember of 1941. I don't know exactly anymore when . . . ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/36","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I went home. Because I\nwouldn't just . . . I would not have gone not with them . . . family was all you had.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You were able then to maintain contact throughout? From 1938 to 1941,\nyou had regular contact with your family?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, because we could write. Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: They had received then . . . notification. You were going to just\nmaintain the family unit at that point?\n\nNATHAN: That's right. Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1050.0,1080.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/37","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"happened once you got back and the notification had been\nreceived? What was the next step?\n\nNATHAN: We were told what we could take with us. We could take one suitcase and\nit couldn't weigh any more than 40 pounds. We were told to take some groceries\nwith us and a bedroll. Then on the tenth of December ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1080.0,1110.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/38","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"we . . . they took us out\nof our home and brought us to the railway station under police guard. From\nthere, they send us to Dusseldorf and this was about 16 people out of Emmerich.\nDusseldorf was the gathering place. There were people from other small cities in\nthis particular part of Germany. Then on the tenth or eleventh of December 1941\nthey put us on the train to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1110.0,1140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/39","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Riga. We got to Riga on the fourteenth of December.\nWe didn't know what was ahead of us. Nobody had told us. We didn't know where we\nwere going or anything.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you say the notification had been received . . . it was received\nand you had how long to prepare for the trip to Riga?\n\nNATHAN: Three or four weeks. I really don't know because I wasn't home at the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1140.0,1170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/40","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"time.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you say you received notification, they notified you of exactly\nwhere you would be going? They said you would be going to Riga or . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: I think so. I don't know anymore.\n\nPOPOWSKI: But then, you were sent and didn't know where you were going?\n\nNATHAN: We didn't know where we were going.\n\nPOPOWSKI: The transport . . . can you tell us a little about the trip? What type\nof transportation was it?\n\nNATHAN: It was in regular trains. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1170.0,1200.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/41","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"They didn't put us in these wagons.\n\nPOPOWSKI: It wasn't a cattle car?\n\nNATHAN: No, it wasn't a cattle car, but there was no food, no nothing. I\nremember when they stopped and they would let us out. At that time there was\nsnow on the ground. We would go out to just get some water or something . . . I\ndon't really remember very much about this trip but just that ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1200.0,1230.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/42","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"all of a sudden we\nwere in Riga. It took four days because . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: Before you left, your parents . . . did they live in their house--?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, in their own home. We left our home. That's what I've told a\nmillion times. I would leave mine as if you would leave your home--everything,\neverything/ All we could take was a suitcase with 40 pounds in it. The whole\nsuitcase . . . we never saw those suitcases again and neither did we see the bed roll.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In other words, you put them on the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1230.0,1260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/43","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"train and that was the last you\nsaw of them?\n\nNATHAN: That's right. Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What did you find . . . first of all, where was Riga and what did you\nfind when you got there?\n\nNATHAN: Riga was in Latvia. It was bitter cold. It was December. We stopped at a\nrailroad station and there were SS dogs. They gave us a choice--I mean the older\npeople like my ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1260.0,1290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/44","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"father. He was in his sixties. They gave him a choice of going\ninto a bus to get into the ghetto, but he didn't because he wanted to stay with\nus. I think those people that got on the bus never were seen again. We walked\nand--whether it was an hour or two hours I don't remember anymore--we got into\nthe ghetto behind barbed wire. We got into ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1290.0,1320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/45","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"houses . . . They told us, \"You go\ninto this house. You go into that house.\" There were 13 people in one room and a\nkitchen. I remember in the kitchen there was a pot with potatoes on the stove,\ncarrots on the stove, there was tea on the table. Later on we were told that\nLatvian Jews had . . . they had brought the Jews of Riga into the ghetto in July\nof ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1320.0,1350.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/46","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"1941. About ten days before we had got there, they had put them in a\nsynagogue and shot them and burned the synagogue. We didn't know at the time we\ngot into the ghetto that that had happened because they had separated the ghetto\nfor the German Jews from the ghetto of the Latvian Jews that were still left.\nThere were about 2,000 Latvian Jews left. They had separated the two parts of\nthe ghetto by a street and by barbed wire on each side. The street was in\nbetween. There was barbed ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1350.0,1380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/47","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"wire. They used to call it the 'German ghetto' and the\n'Latvian ghetto.'\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you first went in, there were German . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: There were German Jews. There had been about . . . in fact, there had\nbeen two trains for us of 1,000 people each. They were called by the\ndestinations they came from. There was one from Cologne, one from Kassel, and we\nwere named the 'Dusseldorf transport' because that was the gathering place. We\nwere the third ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1380.0,1410.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/48","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"transport. There were about ten or twelve after. There were an\nawful lot more after ours but there were a lot that didn't reach the ghetto. We\nfound out later on . . . I guess they gassed them. I really don't know. I never\nfound out about that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You were assigned a place to live?\n\nNATHAN: That's right.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Is this place with your family still together?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: This was your father, your mother, your sister, and yourself?\n\nNATHAN: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1410.0,1440.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/49","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What were your first few days like in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: I don't even remember. I guess we were so numb--that's about the only\nexpression I can say--that I really don't remember. We were cold. We didn't have\nanything to eat. They had a place where they would give you . . . it was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1440.0,1470.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/50","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"all . .\n. you were supposed to get your groceries there. You would get a slice of bread,\nand frozen fish heads, frozen potatoes. You just made do with it. Everything was frozen.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you get into some sort of routine after a while in the ghetto?\nWere there some assignments?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, there were work assignments. The first work I did--and my sister\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1470.0,1500.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/51","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"also--was to . . . they brought us into a big factory where they had gathered\nall the belongings of the Latvian Jews. We were supposed to sort them out. That\nis when we started to steal because we found out . . . that we could exchange\nthis clothing for food. Of course, you had to try not to get ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1500.0,1530.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/52","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"caught.\n\nPOPOWSKI: On a daily basis, you would work during the day?\n\nNATHAN: That's right and get . . . this was still within the ghetto. At the\ntime, we never did get out of the ghetto.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were your sister, and yourself, and your parents all doing the same thing?\n\nNATHAN: No, my parents did not work. I mean they had these Appels where they\nmade you stand outside for hours, and hours, and ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1530.0,1560.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/53","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"hours. Those that worked they\nwere sent on to work. That, I think, is when my father got sick. His toes froze\nand . . . they had a hospital--or what they called a hospital--but there was no\nmedication or nothing. Then he passed away in May of 1942.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: He died of illness?\n\nNATHAN: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1560.0,1590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/54","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Yes, he did. He died a natural death, so . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had said before that you exchanged clothing for food. Was business\ncarried on in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: It wasn't at that time in the ghetto. It was people that worked outside\nthe ghetto. They would take this clothing and they would exchange . . . because\nthey had contact with ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1590.0,1620.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/55","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Latvians. The Latvians didn't have anything to wear, they\nhad the food. So, through a third channel . . . we would get something to eat,\nmaybe a piece of bread or a . . . piece of fat--what you call fatback here. That\nwas the first time we had tried it, but we felt it was more important to keep\nourselves healthy.\n\nPOPOWSKI: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1620.0,1650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/56","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"There were children in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, at that time there were children in the ghetto.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there any attempts to educate children, to keep the educational\nprocess going?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, it was. Even we went. Sometimes I think back why did we even . . .\n? There was a teacher from the Cologne transport who tried to keep up a school\nfor the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1650.0,1680.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/57","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"children. Children did go to school at first. We used to go at night and\nstudied Goethe and Schiller. Sometimes when I think back, \"Why do we do this?\"\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was it all secular education or was there religious education also?\n\nNATHAN: I don't know. There was religious education. We didn't have any children\nin our family so I really . . . that I don't know. Now had ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1680.0,1710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/58","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"services in a little\nroom. I remember we went to say kaddish. Of course, we couldn't sit shiva. We\nhad services in the home because in the same house there were . . . I don't know\nhow many families living there, but there were other people that were saying\nKaddish and there was a minyan. That much I remember.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there people such as doctors in the ghetto that were able to\ncarry on the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/59","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"professions they had had before the war?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, there were, but there was no medication. There were nurses in this\nparticular hospital where my father was. At the time, I was working for the\nGerman army. They first didn't believe we were German. They couldn't understand\nthat we spoke the same language and everything. They tried to help us. They\nwould give us something to eat. I remember very strongly: whatever we had, we\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1740.0,1770.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/60","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"brought to my father because in the hospital there was nothing to eat.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was there any resistance in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: Not as far as I remember in the German part of the ghetto. I know I\nfound out after it had happened. There was a police force in the German ghetto.\nThere were German policemen. Everything was Jewish, but then there were a lot of\nyoung people in the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1770.0,1800.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/61","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Latvian ghetto as a police force. They were all very young .\n. .\n\nPOPOWSKI: They were Jewish people?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. After the resistance . . . after they . . . this was in October of\n1942, when they really tried an uprising, but it didn't work. We found out then\nthey had really prepared for it because underground they had a hospital with\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1800.0,1830.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/62","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"food and medication. They had lived there and they had contact. They spoke the\nlanguage. They did have contact with Latvian non-Jewish people. They killed\nalmost the whole police force. There was no resistance in the German ghetto.\nThat was something my children used to ask me: \"Why not?\" ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1830.0,1860.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/63","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Where would you have\ngone? People had tried to flee but I don't think anybody ever made it. We never\nheard from anybody that ever made it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was there any type of leadership, any type of . . . Jewish government\nor Jewish Council there?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, there was. There was a Jewish Council there.\n\nPOPOWSKI: How did that work?\n\nNATHAN: It worked for the job. I don't think they had very much choice but to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1860.0,1890.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/64","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"do\nthe bidding of the SS. That's who we were under: the SS. I don't think they were\nvery helpful to the Jews.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you remember what they did, what their responsibilities or their\nactivities were?\n\nNATHAN: I think the work kommandos were part of their responsibilities--to get\nenough people together to . . . we used to go out of the ghetto every\nmorning--under guard, of ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1890.0,1920.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/65","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"course. I guess they had to meet a quota for these\ndifferent work kommandos. People were glad to get out of the ghetto to go to work.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were these people on these Jewish Councils . . . were they appointed\nby the Germans?\n\nNATHAN: I think so. Yes, as far as I know.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you know anybody that ever refused to serve on one of these councils?\n\nNATHAN: No, I ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1920.0,1950.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/66","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"don't.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You said that people got out of the ghetto to work outside the ghetto.\nWhat type of work did they do?\n\nNATHAN: Everybody did different jobs. I personally . . . first, we shoveled snow\non the railroads. That's where the Latvian people . . . had pity on us. They\ngave us bread. They used to have thick slices of bread ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1950.0,1980.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/67","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"like this. We would take\nit home. We would make three meals out of that. Then, pretty early on I worked\nfor the German army in early 1942. At that time, they were preparing beach homes\nfor . . . the German officers and we did the housework. Then in the winter of\n1942, 1943 there were Latvian Jewish people, they were ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1980.0,2010.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/68","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"living in an apartment\nhouse outside of Riga under SS guard. They were working for the SS. They were\nmaking boots for the SS. That's really the first time that I knew that there\nwere Jewish people that really had a trade. In Germany, you didn't know this.\nWere either merchants or professionals. These Jewish ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2010.0,2040.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/69","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"people were furriers. They\nmade fur coats. Everything was for the SS, of course. We worked for them by\nkeeping house. I really don't remember any more of the work we did. They were\nvery, very good to us--these Latvian Jewish people. They gave us food. That was\nall our concern: to have something to eat, to take home to eat, and to get wood\nto heat, because in Riga ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2040.0,2070.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/70","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"the ice doesn't melt from September to May.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do these furriers and shoemakers . . . do you feel that they had more\nfood because they had a trade?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. They were . . . the SS wanted to keep them alive and they were fed\nbetter. They had . . . some had connections to the outside. They speak the\nlanguage. They spoke Russian, they spoke Latvian, they spoke Polish. They were\nvery well educated.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Because of the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2070.0,2100.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/71","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"fact you said they had connections to the outside, were\nyou able to get any sort of newspapers or send any messages to the outside of\nthe ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: We . . . not I personally nor my sister, but we had a friend--she is in\nthis country now--she had an awful lot of connections to the SS. There were a\nlot of things going on that weren't . . . wasn't very nice. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2100.0,2130.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/72","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Anyhow, she tried to\nget some mail out to a friend in Germany and she was caught. She was put in\njail. If she had not had her connections with the SS she would never have made\nit out.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Can you . . . you said that there were some things that were not very\nnice that were going on. Would you talk about that a little bit?\n\nNATHAN: There were quite a few . . . there were an awful lot of young Jewish\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2130.0,2160.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/73","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"women that would live with the SS men just to have something to eat, or maybe\nnot be sent to Stutthof, or things like that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In other words . . . because of her contacts, she was saved?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, she was saved.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you know or were there progress reports on the war that you could\nget from the outside how the war was going?\n\nNATHAN: No, we did not know anything. The only ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2160.0,2190.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/74","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"thing I can say in retrospect is,\nwhen the Allies invaded France, that's when they started shaving our heads and\ngave us prison clothes. Because we were noticeable then, you couldn't escape.\nBut this is only in retrospect once I came to this country and knew about the\ninvasion of France.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In other words, at the time you didn't know why they were doing it?\n\nNATHAN: We did not know ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2190.0,2220.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/75","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"anything. No, the only thing we noticed of course . . .\nno not as much in Riga. Later on when we were in Libau when the Russians came\ncloser, the air attacks.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had said before that your friend would have been sent . . . you\nmentioned the name of a city or a camp . . . for sending a letter out. What was\nthat and what did you know about that place?\n\nNATHAN: All we knew that was Stutthof, which was close to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2220.0,2250.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/76","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"what is Gdansk today.\nAll we knew about it was that it was worse than what we had. We did not know\nabout Auschwitz-Birkenau, we did not know about the numbers or anything.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you just sort of know that it was worse than what you had or had\nyou met people who had come from there?\n\nNATHAN: No, nobody had ever come from there into the ghetto or into the camp\nwhere we were. No, we just knew. I guess through the grapevine. I don't know\nreally. I don't know anymore how we ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2250.0,2280.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/77","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"knew.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In your ghetto, were people transported out?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: How and when?\n\nNATHAN: It first started early in 1942. At that time they asked for people to go\non their own, to . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: Volunteer?\n\nNATHAN: Volunteer. That's right. Some people that were in the same room had come\nfrom the same ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2280.0,2310.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/78","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"city that we came from, from Germany, they volunteered. My father\nsaid, \"No I'm not going to volunteer for anything.\" They were promised to go\ninto a fishing village and they would obviously have enough food . . . I hate to\nkeep bringing this up, but it was . . . food was all we were concerned with\nbecause there wasn't any. I don't know if the people ever got there, whether\nthey ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2310.0,2340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/79","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"were . . . we knew they never . . . I don't know if they ever got there.\nAnyhow, they never lived for any length of time.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Initially it was volunteer with the promise of better food and . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: That's right. As long as we were in the ghetto there were transports\nthat never reached the ghetto. That's what we ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2340.0,2370.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/80","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"heard. There were hangings in the\nghetto, but no mass transports out of the ghetto.\n\nPOPOWSKI: There was never any compulsory or there was no need to choose people\nto go? There was always enough volunteers?\n\nNATHAN: Not as long as we were in the ghetto, which was until November of 1942.\nThat's when they . . . there was . . . second of November 1942 . . . after all\nthe people had left--they were going to work--the SS came into the ghetto and\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2370.0,2400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/81","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"took all the old people and children away. When we came back, the ghetto was\nalmost empty. I remember . . . we were just lucky. My mother by that time was\nworking and we were all working for the army. The mother of a very good friend\nof mine was taken.\n\nPOPOWSKI: At that point in time, it went from being volunteer to they just\nliquidated the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, they just liquidated the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2400.0,2430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/82","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"ghetto. Then, on the sixth of November, we\nwere put into barracks from the army. That's when they separated families,\nwomen, husbands and wives . . . Men were put in one barrack and women in another.\n\nPOPOWSKI: At that point in time, you moved out of the houses and still remained\nin a barracks?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. It was up at the ghetto. It was still ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2430.0,2460.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/83","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"within Riga.\n\nPOPOWSKI: At that point in time, was there still separation between Latvians and\nGermans, or were all the Jews together?\n\nNATHAN: I don't know. I think we were all together. I don't think they made any\ndistinction then.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Once you moved into the barracks, how was your life as opposed to\nbefore moving into the barracks? Was your routine the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2460.0,2490.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/84","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"same or your work or did\nthings change as far as the routine and food?\n\nNATHAN: No, it did not change as far as the routine was concerned, because\neverybody that had worked for different German . . . it was the army, it was the\nroad building. They were in barracks with the people they worked for. The\nroutine stayed the same. Left from there and worked different ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2490.0,2520.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/85","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"places. We were\nunder German army and the SS didn't have any hold over us then.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You, your sister, and your mother were together in the barracks?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, we were.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You still received the same ration of food at that time?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had said before, when your father passed away you went to say\nkaddish. Were there religious ceremonies being carried on in the ghetto? Was\nthere a seder at ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2520.0,2550.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/86","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Pesach?\n\nNATHAN: No, there was no seder. They knew very well when Yom Kippur came along\nbecause that's when they made the work even harder. There would be hangings on\nShabbos. There . . . no, we did not have seder for anything. There was no\nmatzah, no nothing.\n\nPOPOWSKI: There was no attempt to really . . . get together?\n\nNATHAN: No, there ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2550.0,2580.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/87","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"wasn't.\n\nPOPOWSKI: The hangings that took place: were these random hangings or were they\n. . . ?\n\nNATHAN: People that got caught with food or maybe trying to escape. I know\nsomebody that's in this country right now, his brother was hanged and they made\nus go by there. There was a certain place where they had the hangings. When ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2580.0,2610.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/88","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you\ncame back from work they made you walk by there.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you have a uniform or . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: No, not until 1944 when they gave us prison clothes. We just had\nwhatever we could find to wear.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You said it was 1944. Was that the time that later you found out they\nhad invaded France?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI:Can you tell us what happened then to change from the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2610.0,2640.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/89","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"routine that you\nhad followed in the barracks?\n\nNATHAN: No, it didn't change the routine, it just . . . the only thing what\nhappened that they shaved our heads, that they gave us prison clothes . . . we\nwore the Star of David and with the prison clothes we got a number--but never\ntattooed. It was just attached, sewn onto our ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2640.0,2670.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/90","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"clothing. We stayed with this . .\n. we stayed with them . . . they sent us to Libau in September of 1944. We\nworked . . . since the liquidation of the ghetto until September of 1944 for the\nGerman Army. For ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2670.0,2700.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/91","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"this, I'm going to have to read from my notes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Sure.\n\nNATHAN: I just seen: while we were working for the German army there was\nchildren. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2700.0,2730.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/92","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"That's when they took the children away--those that had come with us\ninto the barracks. One morning a car or whatever, a truck came and just took\nthem away from their parents. They were never heard from again.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you, your mother, and your sister think you were going to survive?\n\nNATHAN: I ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2730.0,2760.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/93","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"think deep down we did. I think somehow that was what kept us going. I\nthink somehow all we could think of . . . this . . . we were a group of young\ngirls working for the army. We were loading wagons with army clothes or sorting\nout army clothes. We were living in double ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2760.0,2790.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/94","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"beds on straw, no cover, no nothing.\nWe used our coats to cover the straw to lay down on. All we could ever think of\nwas if we could ever have a bedroom sheet. I don't know why but . . . I guess\nthis was something that just kept us going. I have to say that the older\ngeneration--my mother's generation--was much stronger. If it had not been for\nthem I don't think a lot of us would have made ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2790.0,2820.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/95","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"it. They kept saying, \"We got to\nget out of here. We got to get out of here. Just got to keep on.\" I think\nsometimes we thought, \"For what?\"\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was there any unusual or special types of experiences in your time in\nthe ghetto that we haven't covered that you feel like you would like to talk\nabout? Please refer to your notes.\n\nNATHAN: Yes, I think I will have ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2820.0,2850.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/96","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"to . . . I remember . . . I don't know whether\nI am using the right expression, I tried to look it up in the dictionary . . .\nin the summer of 1943, they . . . where they sent my sister away first to . . ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2850.0,2880.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/97","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":".\nthey send us into peat moss fields. That's what they would use to heat their\nhomes with a lot. It was in a swamp. We had to get this peat moss out of the\nswamp and then put it out to dry. This was away from the ghetto. There were\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2880.0,2910.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/98","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"about . . . 20 or 30 young women. We stayed there from . . . I stayed there from\nJuly until October. This was in 1942. At that time, they had selections for\nKaiserwald, which was a camp close to Riga. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2910.0,2940.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/99","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"It was within this group of German\nsoldiers that were selecting people to work for them. My mother and my sister\nwere working for the army. I remember very clearly that he was selecting me to\ngo to Kaiserwald. My mother knew the German soldier because she was working for\nhim. She told him, \"This is my ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2940.0,2970.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/100","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"daughter.\" Then he said, \"Okay, you go with your\nmother.\" That's what saved me.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You didn't go to . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: No, I did not go to Kaiserwald. I stayed with my mother and my sister.\nThey were working for the German army. I had just come back. This was before the\nghetto was dissolved.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Kaiserwald was a . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Kaiserwald was . . . like a concentration camp, like ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2970.0,3000.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/101","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Stutthof. I'm sure\nyou've heard of Stutthof. I think that's what it was. But the idea not to be\nsent . . . that's the goal you had: stay with your family--as long as you could,\nstay with your family. While we were working for the German army, there were\nselections. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3000.0,3030.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/102","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"At one time, there was a doctor that came into the barracks. \"You go\nright. You go left.\" At that time my mother was in a hospital because she had\ntrouble with her leg, trouble with her hand. This soldier that had saved me\naccompanied this SS doctor. He was going to send my mother away. He did the same\nthing for her that he did for me. He said, \"No I need her. She is just sick here\nfor a day or two. I need ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3030.0,3060.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/103","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"her. She is one of my best workers.\"\n\nPOPOWSKI: There were . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, there were some people that were decent and that did help us. I\nwill never forget . . . on Kol Nidre night in . . . 1944, we were loading\nrailroad cars with boots for the SS. We had to bring them ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3060.0,3090.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/104","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"out of a basement,\nwalk up steps, and at that time we tried very hard to fast. It wasn't very hard\nto fast. It was just something . . . you had to cling to something. There was a\nGerman soldier that gave us chocolate that the pilots used for energy, things\nlike that. So there were some. Otherwise I don't think any of us would have made\nit. There were some people ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3090.0,3120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/105","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that . . . helped us.\n\nPOPOWSKI: One of the things that I haven't gotten you to identify yet: if you\ncould just mention, what was your father's, and what was your mother's, and your\nsister's names?\n\nNATHAN: My father's name was George Nathan. My mother's first name was Thea\nNathan and my sister's name was Emmi.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had said before that the strength of the older ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3120.0,3150.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/106","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"generation--their\nsupport--made it easier for you and your peers. Was this within the family? Was\nthere a support system within the camp? In other words, did people come together\nor was it up to everybody to work it out for themselves?\n\nNATHAN: No, I think it was not just the family. It was the group of people you\nworked ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3150.0,3180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/107","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"with. They were supportive of each other and they developed a very strong\nbond . . . to this day. Not very long ago, a couple of years ago, some of the\npeople we were in my camp with . . . after liberation went to Australia . . .\nthey came to this country. They called me and you talk . . . it was 30 or 40\nyears like we had never been ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3180.0,3210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/108","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"apart. There is just something about it that draws\nyou very close.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was there sharing of food? Or, in the case of illness was there\nmedicine? Did people try to help each other in that respect?\n\nNATHAN: To a certain degree yes, and others didn't. Shortly before we were\nliberated, my mother was very, very sick. I think if we had stayed in this\nparticular ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3210.0,3240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/109","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"camp another week my mother would have never made it. We tried to . .\n. this particular woman had somehow gotten some extra bread. We tried to give\nher something else for the bread to give to my mother but she wouldn't. You had\nboth types. There's just . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did the people that didn't come together and support, did they still\nmanage to make it?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, they did.\n\nPOPOWSKI: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3240.0,3270.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/110","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Were there any . . . births in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: No, because the girls that were pregnant they had abortions.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did they feel they didn't want to bring children into the world or\nwere they forced to have abortions?\n\nNATHAN: I think they were forced.\n\nPOPOWSKI: There were no children born?\n\nNATHAN: No.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there any ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3270.0,3300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/111","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"suicides?\n\nNATHAN: Not that I know of. No.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you remember any times when . . . any lighter moments? Was there\nany humor at any time? Was laughter a way of coping at any point in time?\n\nNATHAN: I think so. There were even evenings of ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3300.0,3330.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/112","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"music, under SS supervision.\nThey encouraged it at first. I don't know whether they were trying to make life\na little more normal or what. I don't know. But there were musical evenings.\n\nPOPOWSKI: These were for all of the people in the camp?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, whoever wanted to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3330.0,3360.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/113","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"go.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were you able to distinguish again, were there people that you could\ntrust and people you couldn't trust in the day-to-day routine of the ghetto?\nWere there people who would turn against you?\n\nNATHAN: You might turn against them because there was police. I'm talking about\nGerman Jewish police now. Of course, it was part of their ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3360.0,3390.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/114","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"job to examine us when\nwe came back into the ghetto, whether we had contraband with us, or what they\ncalled contraband. Some did act as if they searched us and others actually did\nsearch us. Of course, if they found something, that was it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In working in the camps, were there any attempts at ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3390.0,3420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/115","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"sabotage?\n\nNATHAN: Not that I know of. No.\n\nPOPOWSKI: With the small amount of food that you had, were there ways of\nconserving energy? Did you make any special attempt as far as conserving your strength?\n\nNATHAN: No, I don't think so.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In your camp, did the SS ever talk about what was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3420.0,3450.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/116","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"happening to the\nJews? I know you have expressed on a couple of occasions how it was the decision\nof an SS officer that potentially saved your life. Did they ever talk about what\nwas happening?\n\nNATHAN: No. We didn't even know about Auschwitz-Birkenau until after liberation\nwhen we saw people with numbers on their arm. All we knew that . . . they had\nshot people in Riga and there are mass graves. There are some people in this\ncountry that ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3450.0,3480.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/117","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"were in this 'kommando' as they called it. While they were doing\nthis, they were kept in a prison outside the ghetto. Once they came back into\nthe ghetto, they were young men that looked like old men. Of course, they were\nnever allowed to talk about it, but we heard about it anyhow.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were there any non-Jews in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: No, it was strictly ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3480.0,3510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/118","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Jews.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Was there any difference between the type of work that the German Jews\nwere asked to do and the Latvian Jews other than the Aktion?\n\nNATHAN: No, I don't really think so because the work kommandos were mixed\npartly. There were Latvian Jews and German Jews working together.\n\nPOPOWSKI: While you were in the camp, did your religious beliefs change in any ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3510.0,3540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/119","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"way?\n\nNATHAN: No, I don't think so. I think we always knew that somebody had to be up there.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did they change after the war? Were they . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: No, I think they were stronger . . . because people will ask you, \"How\ncome you got out? How come you ever made it?\" There is no answer to it, but just\nthat . . . somebody wanted us to get ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3540.0,3570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/120","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"out. That's all I can ever say.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you were in the camps, you really had no idea--except for the\npeople that you knew were hanged or had been shot . . . when people were\ntransported out, you had absolutely no idea what was happening other than it was\nnot good?\n\nNATHAN: No. That's right. No, we didn't. We knew there were buses going out of\nthe ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3570.0,3600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/121","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"ghetto and once they got out there was gassing.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You knew they were gassed?\n\nNATHAN: Yes. We did not know anything about the ovens. We did not know about\nTreblinka or anything like that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When did you first find out about that?\n\nNATHAN: When we went to Sweden, after liberation. We did not know.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What was your reaction when you first heard about it?\n\nNATHAN: I couldn't even tell you, ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3600.0,3630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/122","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"because we couldn't even believe we were free.\nWe lived for more than three-and-a-half years under guard constantly, under a\npistol or anything. We couldn't believe we were free. I think it was months that\nyou didn't look over your shoulder and you didn't see anybody following you. I\ndon't think it sank in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3630.0,3660.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/123","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"until very much later, after we tried to lead a little\nmore normal life and really talk to people from other camps--because there were\njust about 40 of us that got to Sweden that had been together in Riga. There are\nmore now in this country but there were just 40 of us out of ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3660.0,3690.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/124","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"thousands.\n\nPOPOWSKI: That were actually liberated or . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: I don't know, because as the Russians came closer, from Riga we went to\nLibau and stayed there until February of 1945. Then they transported us by\nboat--in the hull of the boat--to Hamburg. There, we stayed in a prison . . .\nunder ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3690.0,3720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/125","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"heavy air attack, but we would never get out of this particular room. We\nwere under . . . they had locked the doors. We were just in this one particular\nroom. We didn't even have room to sleep. We had wooden chairs that we would\ngather at night to sleep on. Now they did feed us but that was only minimal. We\nstayed in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3720.0,3750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/126","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"this prison until the middle of April. Then they made us march--I\nguess it is about 100 kilometers--from Hamburg to Kiel. Hamburg is on the North\nSea. Kiel was on the Baltic Sea. That's where you could really see that the\nolder women--we were mostly women--that they had a lot more will to live. We\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3750.0,3780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/127","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"were ready to give up. We just couldn't see any reason for going on. Then we got\ninto about the worst camp there was: in Kiel. That's where we couldn't keep\nclean anymore. That's where we didn't have anything to eat, but water soup.\nThat's where we were liberated.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What was the name of that camp?\n\nNATHAN: I have no idea. I have ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3780.0,3810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/128","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"never been able to find out. All we knew was that\nthe city was Kiel, which was a fairly large city.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In Germany?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, I don't even know if the camp had a name.\n\nPOPOWSKI: How long did you spend in there?\n\nNATHAN: Two weeks.\n\nPOPOWSKI: That was the last two weeks?\n\nNATHAN: Yes.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What can you tell us about the conditions in that camp?\n\nNATHAN: It was the worst that we had ever experienced. There was no ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3810.0,3840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/129","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"way of\nkeeping clean. We were made to work on blankets that were full of lice, so we\nhad lice. There was nothing to eat--like a water soup and a piece of bread.\nThere was no way of getting anything, too. That's where a lot of people died.\nThat's where my mother almost . . . if it had been another ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3840.0,3870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/130","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"week, my mother would\nhave never made it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did they die from lack of nutrition?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, and from getting sick. There was no medication. There was nothing\nbecause this was towards the end of the war.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When people in this camp and in the ghetto got sick . . . were they\nallowed to die of the illness? Or, in some cases were they just killed?\n\nNATHAN: I know my father was allowed to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3870.0,3900.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/131","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"die. I really don't know about anybody\nelse. The only thing I can tell you: my father died on a Sunday morning. My\nmother had a cousin in the ghetto who was very religious. We were trying to bury\nhim. By the time we could get anything together, he was gone. There was the\ncemetery in the ghetto and that's ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3900.0,3930.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/132","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"supposedly where they were buried, but we had\nno idea.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you suffer a permanent medical problem as a result of your\nexperiences during the war?\n\nNATHAN: No.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did either your mother or your sister?\n\nNATHAN: My mother did because she had a big scar on her leg where she got under\na wheel of a cart. She has trouble with her ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3930.0,3960.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/133","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"hand, which was . . . I really don't\nremember anymore how it happened. I just know in Sweden she was under a doctor's\ncare for months, and months, and months. She can use her hand--which is the only\nthing that is important--but she has a big scar on this finger on her right hand.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were the people that were the policemen, or the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3960.0,3990.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/134","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"people that lived with\nthe SS, were any of these people considered traitors?\n\nNATHAN: We knew somebody had to do it but, sure, they were resented. Yes,\nbecause they lived better. They were able to save their children. Even so, later\non, when all the children were taken, their children were taken ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3990.0,4020.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/135","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"also. I guess\nthey had a bit more push and pull to get a decent workplace or things like that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Were they ever returned to the ghetto? In other words, had their\nusefulness at some point then . . . they had been used as much as they could be\nand they were returned to the ghetto in some instances?\n\nNATHAN: No, not that I know of.\n\nPOPOWSKI: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4020.0,4050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/136","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"In the ghetto that you were in, were there any type of medical\nexperiments, anything . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: No, not that I know of. I think I would have known about that.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What was your worst experience during the war? Is there anything that\nparticularly stands out in your mind as the worst experience that you could . .\n. ?\n\nNATHAN: One of the worst, yes. This was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4050.0,4080.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/137","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"in Libau. There were an awful lot of air\nattacks and we were put . . . they made us go into the bunker. At the entrance\nof the bunkers, there were seats where the older people should sit or those that\nwere not that well or just . . . at one time they asked my mother to sit there.\nShe said, \"No, I'm going with my ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4080.0,4110.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/138","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"girls.\" As it happened, a bomb fell on the\nfirst part of the bunker, so had she sat there she would be gone. You know how\nthey say 'beshert'? That was, I think, one of the worst experiences. One time\nthey caught a friend and myself. We were working for the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4110.0,4140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/139","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"army at the harbor in\nRiga and we had been able to get some eggs. We had to go by boat back to the\nbarracks. We had been able to get some eggs and to get some bread. All of a\nsudden, somebody warned us there was going to be a search, so we hid the eggs\nand the bread under a stone or whatever it was. That was the scariest ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4140.0,4170.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/140","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"thing.\nEven so, I was a young woman. I didn't have any children, but when they took the\nchildren away . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: You said there was very little resistance in Riga. Was there\nresistance initially or did it continue throughout your stay in Riga?\n\nNATHAN: There was really . . . not that I know of. I think ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4170.0,4200.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/141","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"you are trying to\nrefer to the Warsaw ghetto or something like that. We didn't know about it.\nMaybe the Jews in the Latvian ghetto knew about it but we did not know about it.\nThere really was no resistance but trying to escape. Certain people tried to\nescape, but I don't think anybody ever made it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4200.0,4230.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/142","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"said that you smuggled or sometimes were given food and so\nforth. Do you recall any escape attempts at all from the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: I recall one because this particular girl was engaged to one of the\nLatvian policemen . . . I mean Jewish Latvian policemen. The day before they\nshot the . . . before the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4230.0,4260.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/143","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"uprising on the Latvian side, they tried to escape.\nThere, I know she never made it. Then her friend was killed. He was shot. He was\none of the policemen that was shot.\n\nPOPOWSKI: In Riga, I know we discussed before that . . . Eduard Roschmann. You\nknew of him. Can you describe what his position was in the camp, how long he was\nthere . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: I don't know exactly anymore how long he was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4260.0,4290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/144","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Kommandant. He gave all the\norders. I don't know what else to tell.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you used to see him in the . . . ?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, I used to see him strut through the ghetto. Everybody was scared.\nEverybody disappeared, because you never knew: was he going to pick you or just\nsend you off? There was another commandant. His name was ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4290.0,4320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/145","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Krause. Roschmann\ndidn't stay all that long. Krause was there until the end of the ghetto.\n\nPOPOWSKI: For you, when were the first signs . . . can you tell me when you were\nfirst aware that the war was coming to an end and describe that period of time?\n\nNATHAN: We were not aware of the war coming to an end. The only thing we could .\n. . we didn't . . . we knew the Russians were coming closer and that's why they\nkept ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4320.0,4350.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/146","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"us sending back into Germany. We did not know anything about the war,\nnothing whatsoever. We had no contact with the outside world--nothing--and those\nwe had contact with wouldn't talk.\n\nPOPOWSKI: When you say you 'had contact with' . . . who were those people who\nwouldn't talk?\n\nNATHAN: They were Germans. There was the prison guard that would open the door\nwhen they would bring us something to eat or when they made us go downstairs to\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4350.0,4380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/147","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"work. But they would not say anything. We heard the bombings. We saw the bombs\ndrop. I think I told you before: we didn't know how come they never hit the\nprison, but we found out later on that, in Germany, the prisons were built in a\nseven-star and the Allies knew about it. They also knew that either Jews were\nkept in prisons or political prisoners, not actual criminals. That's why they\nnever bombed our prison. But at the time, we did not ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4380.0,4410.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/148","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"know.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Can you actually describe the time of liberation, the day that the war\nwas over? If you could, tell us about that.\n\nNATHAN: The war wasn't over yet. We were liberated before the war ended. The\nnight before liberation . . . we got out of Germany on the first of May. The\nnight before, we were told to take off our prison clothes and we were given\nother clothes. All we could think of was that this was the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4410.0,4440.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/149","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"end.\n\nPOPOWSKI: This is in Kiel?\n\nNATHAN: This is in Kiel, yes. The next morning, we were told to stand in\nformation or whatever. I don't know what else to say. All of a sudden we see big\ntrucks painted white with a red cross on. All we could think was, \"Is this going\nto be it?\" because we had . . . while we were working for the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4440.0,4470.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/150","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"army, we emptied\nrailroad cars that had big red cross. They were supposed to be for the wounded\nsoldiers, but there was nothing but ammunition or army clothing in there,\nanything. We had heard about buses being gassed. That was it. That was all we\ncould think of. They came into this camp. They were Danish Red Cross people that\nspoke German. We didn't want to get into the ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4470.0,4500.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/151","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"buses. They told us, \"You are going\nto be liberated.\" We didn't have a choice. They took us in these buses across\nthe Danish border. I don't know whether it sank in then. I really don't know.\nThey took our clothing away. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4500.0,4530.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/152","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"They made us take showers so we would be clean.\nThen we were put on a train to go to Copenhagen. On the train, we were told . .\n. not to say that we were originally Jews out of Germany. We were not supposed\nto open our ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4530.0,4560.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/153","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"mouths. We found out later on that Count Bernadotte had given\nHimmler . . . I don't know what amount of money. He was supposed to save\nPolish-Jewish people. As it happened, we were counted amongst them and that's\nhow we were saved. Then on the train, we were given care packages. We were told\nto be very, very careful in eating. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4560.0,4590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/154","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"We weren't used to it. Some of us were\ncareful and others weren't. Some people died before we even got to Sweden. Then,\nonce we got to Copenhagen, we were put on a boat. There, we were served coffee.\nI keep coming back to food. That was important to us. We ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4590.0,4620.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/155","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"landed in Malmo on a\nFriday evening. It was like Purim. We find out later, it was like Purim. There\nwas a tent put up. There were Swedish-Jewish people and they had set up tables\nand chairs. That's the first hot chocolate any of us had ever had for a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4620.0,4650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/156","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"long,\nlong time. Then the Swedes--I don't know if it was the German-Jewish community\nor the Swedish Jewish community--they had gotten this school and put up beds in\nthis school. We didn't know at the time where my mother was because she had been\n. . . they had sent her to a hospital in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4650.0,4680.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/157","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Malmo. We found out a couple of days\nlater only because we kept searching for her. My sister and I were together.\n\nPOPOWSKI: She had made the trip to Sweden with you?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, she did. When we got to this school, there were the white beds. We\nstayed in there under doctor's care for about ten days. We were told . . . there\nwas a big schoolyard and Swedish ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4680.0,4710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/158","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"people came around and . . . they used to throw\nchocolate to us. They used to send . . . whatever they could throw over the\nfence. We were told not to eat it, because they tried to keep us strictly on\nrations to try to get us back to eating normally, trying to lead a normal life\nagain. I think I told you before: we were very fortunate. We had family in\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4710.0,4740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/159","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Sweden. We were in Malmo. This is one thing might not be a very nice thing to\nsay, but I feel very strongly about it: there were people from the Joint\nDistribution Committee. We had guarded our addresses from relatives . . . with\nour life. We used to wear them inside because we were supposed to throw\neverything overboard. We were ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4740.0,4770.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/160","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"not allowed to have anything. How we ever kept\nthem I don't know anymore, but my mother had a brother and sister in this\ncountry. We had their addresses. These people from the Joint Distribution\nCommittee came to us. They told us, \"Give us the addresses. We will send\ntelegrams to tell your relatives you are alive.\" Can you imagine waiting for\ndays, and days, and days and you can't ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4770.0,4800.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/161","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"understand that your relatives don't care\nthat you are even alive? We found out later those telegrams were never sent.\nThere were young people that were of Hachshara in Sweden that had not been able\nto get on to Israel from Germany. They came later on and they told us. Through\nthese young people . . . you have heard the name of Warburg, the German-Jewish\nphilanthropist that ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4800.0,4830.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/162","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"was in Sweden? He came originally from Hamburg . . . it was\na banking house. His daughter was working as a volunteer amongst the . . .\nsurvivors. All you could ever do is, \"Do you know this one? Do you know that\none?\" We asked her. We knew this uncle--it was my mother's sister and her\nhusband--that were on their way from Germany to Israel because their daughters\nwere in ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4830.0,4860.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/163","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Israel. When the war broke out, they got stuck in Sweden. My mother sent\na card when we had to leave Germany to Sweden. Of course, we didn't know did it\never reached Sweden, but apparently it did. We asked this Eva Warburg \"Do you\nhappen to know, isn't this family in Stockholm?\" As it happened, she knew my\nuncle. She got in touch with ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4860.0,4890.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/164","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"him. He didn't say anything to my aunt until he got\nin touch with us personally. I guess nobody could believe that we got out. Then\nhe got in touch with us. We stayed in Malmo for about ten days. Then they send\nus to another city in Sweden where . . . the Swedish people were unbelievable to\nus. They tried every which way. They sent us to a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4890.0,4920.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/165","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"little spa where . . . we were\nalways under doctor's care just to see that we would eat the right food and we\nwould get our strength back and everything. That's when my uncle and aunt came\nto visit us. My uncle was working at the time for a Jewish concern in Stockholm.\nHe found jobs for my sister and myself. My mother ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4920.0,4950.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/166","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"went with him to Stockholm. He\nfound jobs for us in Stockholm. My sister . . . we both worked for a Jewish\nfamily as a maid. That didn't matter, as long as we could at least earn\nsomething and get out of the camp situation. My mother had cousins in this\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4950.0,4980.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/167","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"country--a brother and sister--but they were not able to help us financially to\nget the affidavits, which you needed to get to come to this country. We didn't\nhave anything. What we earned . . . I can just give you a comparison . . . what\nwe earned in a month as a maid might buy a dress. It was nothing--nothing that\nyou could say . . . eventually we would pay for our own fare. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4980.0,5010.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/168","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"That just wasn't\npossible because we were working illegally. We didn't have a work permit. We\nwere just glad . . . whatever we made, we made. This sister of my mother's got\nin touch with cousins in this country, which were very well off. We had cousins\non my father's side that were here. They were able to get an affidavit for the\nthree of us. ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5010.0,5040.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/169","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Then the cousins of my mother sent us the fare to come over. We\ncame to this country in April of 1946.\n\nPOPOWSKI: How did the war . . . looking back at it, what impact did it have on\nyour life? How did it influence the way you live today or did it have an influence?\n\nNATHAN: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5040.0,5070.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/170","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"To this day, I can't watch the fireworks. On the Fourth of July, my\nhusband used to take the boys because I couldn't watch it. At first the airplane\n. . . because all you knew were the bombs . . . the fireworks has to do with the\n. . . we used to call them 'Christmas trees'--the flares that they would send so\nthey could see where they were ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5070.0,5100.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/171","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"bombing. That still brings that memory back.\n\nPOPOWSKI: You had referred to the fact early on in the interview that your\nfather felt very strongly that Emmerich was the city in which he had grown up\nin, that he was a German, and this was where he was going to stay. What is your\nfeeling today toward Germany today and toward German ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5100.0,5130.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/172","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"people?\n\nNATHAN: I don't want anything to do with . . . I work with some of them and I am\nfriendly with them. I went back to Germany and that was . . . a very big\nmistake. I would never do it again. There is just a certain feeling about . . .\nGermany. I just don't want to have any contact with them ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5130.0,5160.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/173","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"anymore. I work with\nGerman women but they don't mean anything to me. The only thing I can say as far\nas my father is concerned, he was not the exception to the rule because Germans\nare very nationalistic whether they were Jewish or not. Give you an example: my\nfather he was in the First World War. He had the Iron Cross. He took it with\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5160.0,5190.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/174","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"him. Of course, he didn't keep it. They took it away from him at the gathering\nplace but maybe that tells you something.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you ever talk about your experiences during the war?\n\nNATHAN: No. That is why I did this.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Is there any reason that you haven't talked about it?\n\nNATHAN: I feel very strongly ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5190.0,5220.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/175","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"that unless you have really lived through it, it's\nvery hard for the next one to understand. That's why there is a very strong bond\nbetween those of us that have gone through it, and were liberated together, and\nkept in touch. You don't have to see each other but you will call each other--as\nlong as you were in this ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5220.0,5250.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/176","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"country. You will hear about the others because\nsomebody will always write. You keep in touch with those that are in Australia.\nA friend of mine just went to Australia a couple of years ago. You feel very\nstrongly. You want to hear all about what they are doing and how they are\nliving. You want to see pictures. There is a group of survivors of Riga in New\nYork. We have gotten together and people have come from other ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5250.0,5280.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/177","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"countries. I hope\nto go in October. There is another gathering. There was a big gathering and we\ncalled it '30 years of liberation.' At that time, my husband was still alive and\nwe went. Thirty-five years of liberation I didn't go, but, G-d willing, there's\n40 years--in just another couple of years.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you feel another Holocaust is ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5280.0,5310.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/178","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"possible?\n\nNATHAN: I hope not. I would not live through another one. That much I know. I\nwould never and I think . . . I really don't know if that would ever be possible.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Did you receive any reparations from the German government?\n\nNATHAN: Yes, because . . . my parents left their home and whatever they\n","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5310.0,5340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/179","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"had--land and everything. Yes, we did. My mother still gets a widows pension and\nreparations for health . . . I don't know what to name it . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: Disability?\n\nNATHAN: Disability. That's right . . . but neither my sister nor I. It is very\nmuch my fault ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5340.0,5370.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/180","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"because I don't want anything from the German . . . that's the way\nI felt. Now I am sorry I don't. We did . . . my mother did get . . . and\naccording to German law everything goes in equal parts to survivors . . . not\nthat my mother would have given it to us anyhow.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Is there anything that we haven't discussed so far, that you would\nlike to talk ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5370.0,5400.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/181","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"about?\n\nNATHAN: I don't know.\n\nPOPOWSKI: What are your feelings about Israel? I know you said before the war\nyou worked in the school, where were people preparing to go to Israel. Some of\nyour relatives tried to--.\n\nNATHAN: I feel a very strong bond. I would not want to go live in Israel, but I\ntry to do whatever I can. This group in Riga we are trying to support a . . .\ntrying to ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5400.0,5430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/182","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"help a . . . support a home for retarded children in Israel. I feel\nvery strongly about it and that is one of my priorities. Just as the Holocaust\nmuseums are. I try to do as much as I can for Israel, always have. So did my\nhusband. I have very strong feelings for Israel. I went to Israel. I would love\nto go ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5430.0,5460.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/183","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"back . . . I think that's one of the highlights of my life . . .\n\nPOPOWSKI: Do you still think about your experiences in the ghetto?\n\nNATHAN: Sometimes, certain days. You can't help but and when you are together\nwith other people you will, without really realizing, you will say, \"Do you\nremember?\" There are just certain days that bring it back.\n\nPOPOWSKI: ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5460.0,5490.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/184","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"How have you felt about answering these questions and talking about\nit? How have you felt about this interview in general?\n\nNATHAN: I think it was good for me to talk about it. I wanted my children to\nknow. I never talked about it. I remember both of them calling me when the\nHolocaust was on television. I don't know whether it was George or whether it\nwas Mark. When Babi Yar--the section about Babi Yar--either one of them asked\nme, \"How come, Mom? Why ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5490.0,5520.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/185","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"wouldn't they run? Why wouldn't they do this . . . ?\"\nThere was no way to run. Where would you run? There was no way out of the\nghetto. At least, we felt there was no way out.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Sophie . . . I would like to thank you very much. I'm glad that you\ngranted us this opportunity to have an interview with you. I can only speak for\nmyself, but what you have done is a ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5520.0,5550.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/186","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"real mitzvah. I just feel that it is very\nimportant for people such as yourself to document their experiences during the\nwar so we--the children, as well as future generations--will know what you went\nthrough and will gain strength from your will to survive. Again, I thank you\nvery much for myself, and for our generation, and ","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5550.0,5580.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/transcript/19503/annotation/187","type":"Annotation","motivation":"transcribing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"future generations.\n\nNATHAN: You are welcome, because I feel, too, the next generation should know,\nso maybe it will never happen again, maybe there is a way of preventing it.\n\nPOPOWSKI: Thank you.\n\nNATHAN: You're welcome.","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5580.0,5610.0"}]},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Annotations [Transcript]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/188","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSophie says Montgomery but it was actually Birmingham, Alabama.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=0.0,30.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/189","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eWorld War II officially began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939—just two months before Sophie’s eighteenth birthday.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=30.0,60.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/190","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eCologne [German: Köln] is Germany’s fourth largest city. It is located on both sides of the Rhine River in western Germany, near the border of Belgium and the Netherlands.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=60.0,90.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/191","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEmmerich is a city in northwest Germany on the lower part of the Rhine River, near the Dutch border. Emmerich was almost completely destroyed in an Allied bombing campaign on October 7, 1944. Since 2001, the city has been known as Emmerich am Rhein; until then it was called Emmerich.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=90.0,120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/192","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA gymnasium is a type of school providing secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to college preparatory high schools in the United States. The gymnasium prepares pupils to enter a university for advanced academic study.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=150.0,180.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/193","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKosher/\u003cem\u003eKashrut\u003c/em\u003e is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to \u003cem\u003ehalakhah\u003c/em\u003e (Jewish law) is termed ‘kosher’ in English. The word ‘kosher’ has become English vernacular, a colloquialism meaning proper, legitimate, genuine, fair, or acceptable. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=180.0,210.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/194","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAmid an economic depression and increasing political instability in Germany, Adolf Hitler and his party, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (or Nazi Party) rapidly rose to power. In 1932, the Nazi party was elected to fill more seats in the \u003cem\u003eReichstag\u003c/em\u003e [German: parliament] than any other party. In 1933, democratically elected President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor of Germany, a position responsible for leading the \u003cem\u003eReichstag\u003c/em\u003e. As Chancellor, he began transforming his position into a dictatorial one. When the President died in 1934, Hitler declared himself head of state and effectively became absolute dictator of Germany under the title of \u003cem\u003eFührer\u003c/em\u003e [German: Leader].\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=210.0,240.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/195","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAntisemitism is prejudice against, hostility to, or hatred of Jews.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=240.0,270.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/196","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHitler Youth was a youth organization of the Nazi party that existed from 1922 to 1945. It was paramilitary in organization and put emphasis on physical and military training. It was for males 14 to 18 years of age, but there was another section for young boys and a girls’ section called\u003cem\u003e Bund Deutscher Madel\u003c/em\u003e. The Hitler Youth were viewed as future “Aryan supermen” and were indoctrinated as such. They had uniforms like the SA with similar ranks and insignia. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=270.0,300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/197","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eBetween 1933 and 1939, Nazi Party leaders began to persecute Jews through a series of antisemitic legislation that included more than 400 decrees and regulations restricting all aspects of their public and private lives. Nazi policies of exclusion brought radical and daunting social, economic, and communal change to the German Jewish community. German Jews found themselves increasingly disenfranchised by the Nuremberg Race Laws, which were introduced in 1935 and formed the cornerstone of the German Nazi Party’s racial policy. They heralded in a new wave of antisemitic legislation that brought about immediate and concrete segregation. The Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of German citizenship, prohibited Jewish households from having German maids under the age of 45, prohibited any non-Jewish German from marrying a Jew, and outlawed sexual relations between Jews and Germans.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=360.0,390.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/198","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eOn November 8 and 9, 1938, a state-sponsored nationwide pogrom was started by the Nazi regime. Across Germany and Austria, Jewish synagogues, homes, and businesses were looted and burned. Jews were attacked on the streets and 91 were killed. Thousands of Jewish men were sent to concentration camps for several weeks and released only when they agreed to leave the country as soon as possible. The Jews were made to pay for the damages to their premises. The pogrom was called ‘\u003cem\u003eKristallnacht\u003c/em\u003e,’ which means ‘Night of Broken Glass,’ because of all the damage done to Jewish shop windows.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=390.0,420.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/199","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEstablished on March 22, 1933, Dachau was the first concentration camp established by the Nazi regime. It was located in southern Germany near the town of Dachau, about 10 miles northwest of Munich. Originally, it was a camp for criminals, political prisoners, and other opponents of the Nazi regime. In 1938, in the aftermath of \u003cem\u003eKristallnacht\u003c/em\u003e, the Jewish population rose to 10,000, although most were eventually released after agreeing to emigrate from Germany. Over 188,000 prisoners passed through Dachau between 1933 and 1945. Prisoners at Dachau were used as forced laborers and thousands were literally worked to death or died as a result of the harsh, overcrowded conditions, medical experiments, and executions.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=510.0,540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/200","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHannover is a city in northern central Germany, located on the River Leine.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=540.0,570.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/201","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAmid the upsurge in antisemitism and nationalism in the early twentieth century and the barring of Jewish members from German youth groups, Jewish youth in Germany and throughout Europe became active in the Zionist movement. All emphasized \u003cem\u003eAliyah\u003c/em\u003e (the immigration of Jews to Israel) and community, with many also focusing on agriculture. \u003cem\u003eHachshara\u003c/em\u003e [Hebrew: training] camps in Germany prepared Jewish youth to be pioneers.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=570.0,600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/202","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHeinrich Himmler had obtained permission from Hitler to begin deporting Jews from Germany in September 1941. At the time, no extermination camps had been constructed and, because killing German Jews could be politically sensitive, they were to be relocated east before being deported even further east the next spring. Riga and Minsk became the sites of ghettos for German-speaking Jews deported from the Reich in late 1941 and early 1942.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=570.0,600.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/203","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn the early hours of November 9, 1939, Cologne’s major synagogues were ransacked and burned.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=600.0,630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/204","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eOn the eve of World War II, approximately 65,000 Jews lived in Belgium. The overwhelming majority were immigrants and refugees. By May 1940, German forces occupied Belgium. Approximately 29,000 Jews in Belgium perished during the Holocaust.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=630.0,660.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/205","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFifteen year old Heinz (Henry) Nathan and his 22 year old sister, Mertha, arrived in New York City, New York on May 28, 1936.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=690.0,720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/206","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSophie, her sister, and her parents are named among 112 people—along with their birthdates, addresses, and information on their deaths or present residences—on a list of “Jewish Families and Individuals that Lived in Emmerich and Elten [a neighboring village] after 1930” Taub, Ruth. Jüdische Familien und Einzelpersonen, die nach 1930 in Emmerich und Elten gewohnt haben. August 22, 1989. Emmerich Jewish Community Collection. Leo Baeck Institute. \u003ca href=\"\u0026lt;http:/digital.cjh.org/view/action/singleViewer.do?dvs=1432914882158~660\u0026amp;locale=en_US\u0026amp;%20VIEWER_URL=/view/action/singleViewer.do?\u0026amp;DELIVERY_RULE_ID=5\u0026amp;frameId=1\u0026amp;usePid1=true\u0026amp;usePid2=true\u0026gt;\"\u003e\u0026lt;http://digital.cjh.org/view/action/singleViewer.do?dvs=1432914882158~660\u0026amp;locale=en_US\u0026amp; VIEWER_URL=/view/action/singleViewer.do?\u0026amp;DELIVERY_RULE_ID=5\u0026amp;frameId=1\u0026amp;usePid1=true\u0026amp;usePid2=true\u0026gt;\u003c/a\u003e Accessed 28 May 2015.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to Spector, Schmuel and Geoffrey Wigoder, eds. The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust: A-J, New York: NYU Press, 2001, there were 86 Jews living in Emmerich in June 1933, about four months after the Nazi party’s seizure of power in Germany. By May 1939, the Jewish population was down to 32. The exact number that remained in November 1941 and the fate of those left behind is unclear but, according to Spector and Wigoder, the last six Jewish residents of Emmerich were deported to Theresienstadt on July 22, 1942.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=720.0,750.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/207","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Immigration Act of 1924 limited maximum annual immigration into the United States to 153,774. Inside that total number, each country was assigned a total number of immigrants. Great Britain and Ireland dominated most of the available slots. Germany was assigned about 26,000 immigrants per year while countries like Poland were allowed 6,000 immigrants per year. The German quota number per year was not related to Jews but to all Germans. Those Jews who determined very early in the Nazi regime to leave Germany essentially had to get in line as their numbers would not be available for several years. Those Jews who took no steps to try to leave until Kristallnacht (or in the mid- to late-1930’s) stood no chance of getting out of Germany as, after war broke out in 1939, all emigration from Germany was halted. Throughout the 1930s, isolationism and xenophobic sentiments allowed a restrictive immigration policy to prevail in the United States. Although aware of and sympathetic to the plight European Jews faced, President Roosevelt was also preoccupied by a severe economic depression. Fierce political opposition in Congress further prevented Roosevelt from asking for increased immigration quotas.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=750.0,780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/208","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHannover, Germany is almost mid-way between Emmerich, Germany and the Polish border.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=810.0,840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/209","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe British began bombing Hannover in May 1940. By war’s end, much of the city had been destroyed in the Allies’ strategic bombing campaigns. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=810.0,840.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/210","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA gentile is a person of a non-Jewish nation or of non-Jewish faith.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=840.0,870.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/211","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e100,000 Jews from German-annexed territories in Poland (the so-called province of Danzig-West Prussia, District Wartheland, and East Upper Silesia) were deported in the fall and winter of 1939—1940. In October 1940, around 7,000 Jews from southwestern Germany were deported to unoccupied France and interned at the Gurs concentration camp near the French-Spanish border.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/212","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eWhen the Germans conquered Belgium in May 1940, between 65,000 and 70,000 Jews lived in Belgium. The overwhelming majority were foreign and stateless Jews that had sought refuge in Belgium. In the summer of 1940, some German Jews were deported from Belgium to the Gurs and St. Cyprien internment camps in southern France.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/213","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eRiga is the capital city of Latvia, located 476 kilometers (296 miles) north-northwest of Minsk. German troops occupied Riga on July 1, 1941 and soon established a ghetto. In late 1941 and early 1942, Riga and Minsk, became the sites for ghettos of German-speaking Jews deported from the Third Reich [herein referred to as ‘German Jews’].\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1020.0,1050.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/214","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDusseldorf [German: Düsseldorf] is a city located on the Rhine River in western Germany, near the borders of Belgium and the Netherlands. Dusseldorf is about 65 miles (105 kilometers) south of Emmerich, Germany.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1110.0,1140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/215","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to a report from the police officer who commanded the guards on the transport from Dusseldorf to Riga, 1,007 Jews from the towns of Dusseldorf, Duisburg, Krefeld, and other towns and communities in the area left Dusseldorf the morning of November 11, 1941. In the chaos of boarding, some cars were crowded with 60-65 people, while others held only 35-40. It rained or snowed the entire trip and the train’s steam heater did not reach the last cars of the train. The trip would normally take 14 hours, but they did not arrive in Riga until the early morning hours of November 17, when temperatures were well below freezing. The officer complained that the prisoners were not supplied with enough water and would try to get off the train at every stop or delay to look for water. He reports that his guards required prompting to “act more energetically against Jews who wanted to disobey my orders.”\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1110.0,1140.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/216","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe SS or Schutzstaffel was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. It began at the end of 1920 as a small, permanent guard unit known as the “Saal-Schutz” made up of Nazi Party volunteers to provide security for party meetings in Munich. Later, in 1925, Heinrich Himmler joined the unit, which had by then been reformed and renamed the “Schutzstaffel.” Under Himmler’s leadership, it grew from a small paramilitary formation to one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the Third Reich. Under Himmler’s command, it was responsible for many of the crimes against humanity during World War II. After World War II, like the Nazi Party, it was declared a criminal organization by the International Military Tribunal and banned in Germany. The SS were known for using trained guard dogs, especially German shepherds, to help control prisoners.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1260.0,1290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/217","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the account of another survivor, Gertrude Schneider, recorded in her book, Journey Into Terror: Story of the Riga Ghetto (Ardent Media, 1979), new arrivals of Jews who were unable to walk from the train station to the ghetto were told they could be driven. Many elderly, children, and other unsuspecting prisoners volunteered to go in the “gas vans.” Gassing vans were vehicles reequipped as a mobile gas chamber. Inhaling exhaust fumes that were pumped into an airtight compartment when the engine was running killed victims. Until gas chambers were developed as a more efficient method for killing large numbers of people, gassing vans were employed. By summer 1942, at least two gassing vans were operating in Riga.   \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1290.0,1320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/218","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFollowing the German occupation of Riga in July 1941, the city’s synagogues were burned in a series of violent pogroms. Jewish people were rounded up and forced into synagogues, which were then set on fire. In October, 29,600 Jews from Riga and the surrounding area were confined to a ghetto. The murder of the Latvian Jews in the Riga ghetto that Sophie is referring to is collectively referred to as the “Rumbula massacre.” On November 30 and December 8, 1941, at least 25,500 of the Latvian Jews in the Riga ghetto were taken to a nearby wooded area called “Rumbula” where they were shot and buried in large pits that had been prepared by Russian POWs.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1350.0,1380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/219","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAround 5,000 Latvian Jews—mostly young men and women healthy enough to work—were spared from the liquidation of the Riga ghetto at the end of 1941. They were confined to a separate part of the ghetto known as the “Latvian ghetto” and kept separate from the new arrivals. From November 1941 until mid-1942, a series of 20 transports brought more than 22,000 German, Austrian and Czech Jews to Riga and filled the main ghetto, as well as nearby camps at Jungfernhof and Salaspils. The Jews from the Third Reich were housed in the homes that had been vacated by the murdered Latvian Jews in what was now known as the “German ghetto.”\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1350.0,1380.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/220","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKassel is a city located on the Fulda River in central Germany. A transport of around 1,000 Jews (around half from the city of Kassel and half from the surrounding area) was sent to Riga on December 9, 1941.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1380.0,1410.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/221","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eOn November 30, 1941, the first transport of 1,000 Jews from Berlin arrived in Riga. They were taken to the forest and killed along with over 25,000 Latvian Jews from the ghetto. Other survivors also reported that additional transports of German Jews were killed upon arrival in Riga between the fall of 1941 and mid-1942, but it is unclear how many.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1410.0,1440.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/222","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA large number of professors and teachers arrived in the “German ghetto” and were allowed to establish schools for the children.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1680.0,1710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/223","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eJohann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, critic, and amateur artist. He is considered the greatest German literary figure of the modern era.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1680.0,1710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/224","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eJohann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1788–1805) was a German poet, playwright, philosopher, historian, and literary theorist.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1680.0,1710.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/225","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAlso known as the “Mourner’s \u003cem\u003eKaddish\u003c/em\u003e,” the word \u003cem\u003eKaddish \u003c/em\u003emeans sanctification, and the prayer is a sanctification of G-d's name that is recited at funerals and by mourners. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/226","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eShiva\u003c/em\u003e, literally “seven,” is the weeklong mourning period in Judaism for first-degree relatives: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister and spouse. The ritual is referred to as “sitting \u003cem\u003eShiva\u003c/em\u003e.” Immediately after burial, first-degree relatives assume the status of “mourner.” This state lasts for seven days, during which the family members traditionally gather in one home and receive visitors. At the funeral, mourners traditionally rend an outer garment, a ritual known as ‘\u003cem\u003ekerish\u003c/em\u003e.’ This garment is worn throughout \u003cem\u003eShiva\u003c/em\u003e. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/227","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA \u003cem\u003eminyan\u003c/em\u003e refers to the quorum of 10 Jewish adults required for certain religious obligations. According to many non-Orthodox streams of Judaism adult females count in the \u003cem\u003eminyan\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1710.0,1740.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/228","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe ghetto police force initially consisted of 42 Latvian Jewish men in charge of both the German-speaking part of the ghetto and the smaller Latvian part. At the beginning of 1942, they were involved in the organization of a resistance movement in the Latvian ghetto. Many of the Jews worked for the Wehrmacht, sorting weapons. The ghetto police organized the smuggling of weapons into the ghetto. The weapons were hidden along with ammunition and food in a bunker that had been prepared. When the Germans discovered their activities on October 29, 1942, all the members of the ghetto police were shot.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1830.0,1860.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/229","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe German-speaking Jews who arrived in the Riga ghetto between 1941 and 1942 quickly established their own Jewish Council [German: \u003cem\u003eJudenrat\u003c/em\u003e]. Some of the representatives had been elected during the process of deportation and organization initially depended on the location where each group had been deported from, but a centralized ghetto administration was soon established. The Jewish Council oversaw a social department, labor department, prison, and police unit. The Germans retained responsibility for the administration and assignment of housing.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1860.0,1890.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/230","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eA \u003cem\u003ekommando\u003c/em\u003e [German: unit or command] was the basic unit of organization of slave laborers during World War II.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=1890.0,1920.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/231","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eJews in Riga’s Latvian and German ghettos were used for forced labor. Most were employed by the Wehrmacht, SS, railway and postal service centers, or private companies and most of the workplaces were outside the ghetto. To avoid the long marches back and forth to the camp, many of the companies that employed the Jews housed them at the work sites. Thus many of the Latvian Jews especially were able to contact the local population and obtain extra food. While contact between the Latvian and foreign Jews was strictly forbidden, there was some contact. Many of the Latvian Jews spoke German fluently and assisted the newly arrived German speaking Jews in obtaining food.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2010.0,2040.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/232","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eStutthof was established in 1939 near Danzig (present-day Gdansk), on the Baltic Sea. There were a series of sub-camps attached to the main camp, which acted as a reserve for slave labor for the others. Conditions in the camp were brutal and more than 60,000 people died there.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2160.0,2190.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/233","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Allies landed in the Normandy region of France on June 6, 1944. The invasion initiated the liberation of France and German forces in Paris surrendered on August 25. The decision to shave the heads of the prisoners and have them dress in striped uniforms was probably influenced more directly by the advance of the Russians in the east. The uniforms and shaved heads would have made it easier to identify the prisoners when they were being evacuated. Sigi Ziering, another survivor from the Riga ghetto, recalls this happening in early August 1944, shortly before the remaining Riga prisoners were sent to either Kaiserwald or Libau.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2190.0,2220.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/234","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eLibau is the German name of the city of Liepāja [Latvian] in western Latvia. It is located 195 kilometers (121 miles) southwest of Riga on the Baltic Sea. The Libau ghetto had been liquidated in 1943 and, by the fall of 1944, only around 800 Jews remained as slave laborers, working for the Reichsbahn or German General electric Company (AEG). By October, those prisoners had been sent to Stutthof, so it is unclear why some prisoners from Riga where brought to Libau. Sigi Ziering, another survivor from Riga, recalls a last minute order that kept 200 prisoners from being sent to Stutthof when Riga was evacuated. On September 29, 1944, those prisoners were loaded onto a ship and sailed to Libau, where the Russians were already conducting frequent air raids. According to Ziering, the Riga prisoners were put to work at a clothing facility until late February 1945.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2220.0,2250.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/235","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAuschwitz-Birkenau was a network of camps built and operated by the Third Reich just outside the town of Oswiecem (renamed Auschwitz by the Germans) in Polish areas annexed by Germany during World War II. It is estimated that the SS and police deported at a minimum 1.3 million people (approximately 1.1 million of which were Jews) to the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex between 1940 and 1945. Camp authorities murdered 1.1 million of these prisoners.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2250.0,2280.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/236","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn March 15 and 26, 1942, close to 4,000 mostly elderly, infirm, and women with children from the Riga ghetto and the nearby transit camp known as Jungfernhof [Latvian: Jumpravmuiza] were killed in what became known as the Dünamünde Aktion. The prisoners had volunteered for what was said to be easy work in a non-existent fish processing company near a former town known as Dünamünde [Latvian: Daugavgrīva]. Instead, the volunteers were taken into the nearby Bikernieki forest, where they were shot and thrown into pits that had been prepared.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2280.0,2310.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/237","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe liquidation of the Riga ghetto occurred incrementally in the fall of 1943. Those who were deemed fit for work were gradually transferred from Riga to the Kaiserwald concentration camp and its subcamps. On November 2, 1943, 2,268 Jews were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau from Riga and about 4,000 were transferred to Kaiserwald. Sophie, her mother, and her sister were among the 5,500 Riga ghetto Jews who continued to work and were housed outside the ghetto, but came under the authority of the Kaiserwald camp.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2400.0,2430.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/238","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePesach\u003c/em\u003e [Hebrew: Passover] is the anniversary of Israel’s liberation from Egyptian bondage. The holiday lasts for eight days. On the first two nights, the \u003cem\u003eseder\u003c/em\u003e—the central event of the holiday—is celebrated. The \u003cem\u003eseder\u003c/em\u003e service is one of the most colorful and joyous occasions in Jewish life. During Passover, \u003cem\u003ematzot\u003c/em\u003e [unleavened bread] is eaten in memory of the unleavened bread prepared by the Israelite during their hasty flight from Egypt, when they did not have time to wait for the dough to rise.  \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2550.0,2580.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/239","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYom Kippur\u003c/em\u003e [Hebrew: Day of Atonement] is the most sacred day of the Jewish year. \u003cem\u003eYom Kippur\u003c/em\u003e is a 25-hour fast day, spent in prayer, reciting \u003cem\u003eyizkor\u003c/em\u003e for deceased relatives, confessing sins, requesting divine forgiveness, and listening to \u003cem\u003eTorah\u003c/em\u003e readings and sermons. People greet each other with the wish that they may be sealed in the heavenly book for a good year ahead. The day ends with the blowing of the \u003cem\u003eshofar\u003c/em\u003e (a ram’s horn). As an important holiday of the Jewish year, the Germans often planned \u003cem\u003eAktions\u003c/em\u003e or other forms of persecution to coincide with \u003cem\u003eYom Kippur. \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2550.0,2580.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/240","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe area within the Riga ghetto where the gallows were constructed was called the \u003cem\u003eBlechplatz\u003c/em\u003e [German: Tin Square or Tin Place]. This was also where soccer matches and other community activities were held.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2580.0,2610.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/241","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Kaiserwald concentration camp was located north of the city of Riga and established in March 1943. Jews from Hungary, Poland, and most of the Jews that survived the liquidations of the ghettos in Latvia (including Riga) were sent to Kaiserwald and its subcamps. By March 1944, there were around 12,000 prisoners in Kaiserwald. The prisoners were used for slave labor and contracted to German companies for the production of electrical goods or worked in factories, mines, and on farms. As the Russian army advanced in the summer of 1944, thousands of prisoners were murdered and the survivors were deported to the Stutthof concentration camp. The Russian army liberated the camp on October 13, 1944.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=2910.0,2940.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/242","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKol Nidre\u003c/em\u003e is an Aramaic declaration recited in the synagogue before the beginning of the evening service on every \u003cem\u003eYom Kippur\u003c/em\u003e [Hebrew: the Day of Atonement], which is traditionally observed with 25 hours of fasting. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3060.0,3090.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/243","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSophie may be referring to Schokakola, a dark chocolate with caffeine added, that was commonly included in the rations given to German \u003cem\u003eLuftwaffe\u003c/em\u003e pilots as well as other special forces.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3090.0,3120.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/244","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the account of Gertrude Schneider, a few babies were born in the ghetto in the first year, but were immediately killed. Pregnant women were forced to have abortions. Sexual relations between prisoners were forbidden and women who required second abortions were eventually sterilized.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3270.0,3300.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/245","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn many ghettos and concentration or extermination camps, amateur and professional musicians from among the prisoners formed officially sanctioned orchestras, ensembles, bands, and choirs. The musicians performed as directed or permitted by the camp administration. Prisoners sometimes performed for the entertainment of the SS. Music often accompanied background music for work details leaving or returning to camps and for punishments or executions. In Riga, an orchestra regularly performed for the ghetto inhabitants and singing events were held. The administration and guards often attended the concerts.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3330.0,3360.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/246","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIt is unclear what kommando Sophie is referring to. She could be referring to the prisoners that were housed in the Jungfernhof transit camp just outside of Riga and were charged with sorting the belongings of those who had been murdered during various Aktions. She could also be referring to the young men who were sent to build the nearby Salaspils concentration camp in the winter of 1941 and summer of 1942. The survivors of those work details returned to the ghetto as exhausted, living skeletons. Sophie could also be referring to a Sonderkommando [German: special unit], which were special work units made up of prisoners that were typically young males. Especially in extermination camps, they were charged with the disposal of bodies. In 1944, in an attempt to destroy evidence of the mass murders Sophie refers to, the Germans forced prisoners to reopen the mass graves and burn the bodies. Sophie may be referring to those prisoners. However, it is unusual that they would have been allowed to return to the ghetto during this process. Sonderkommando were typically killed either after their work was completed or after a short, predetermined period of time. The prisoners charged with burning the bodies in Riga in 1944 were killed when their task was completed.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3480.0,3510.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/247","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAktion\u003c/em\u003e is the German term used for any non-military campaign to further Nazi ideals of race, but most often referring to the assembly, and deportation of Jews to concentration or death camps.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3510.0,3540.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/248","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eTreblinka was established in the Lublin district of Poland in November 1941 and began operations as an extermination camp in July 1942. Between July 1942 and early 1943, nearly 900,000 Jews from all over Poland and Europe were murdered in Treblinka’s gas chamber.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3600.0,3630.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/249","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHamburg is located in northern Germany on the Elbe River. It is the second-largest city in Germany and the second-largest port in Europe. During World War II, the city was the target of numerous Allied bombing missions between 1939 and 1945, which nearly decimated the city and killed at least 42,000 civilians.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3690.0,3720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/250","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSophie was probably kept in Fuhlsbuttel Prison [German: Fühlsbuttel]. Fuhlsbuttel Prison (also known as “Kola Fu” or “Santa Fu”) has been in operation in Hamburg, Germany since the late nineteenth century. When the Nazi party came to power, the SS and then Gestapo used the prison to house political prisoners, criminals, Communists, and other “asocials.” The prison was also used to house transports of prisoners being sent to other camps and, in the winter of 1944-1945, a satellite camp of Neuengamme concentration camp was established in one of the prison’s buildings. Sigi Ziering recalls being imprisoned in Fuhlsbuttel Prison with other Riga survivors from late February until mid-April 1945. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3690.0,3720.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/251","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKiel is a city in north Germany on the Baltic Sea, located approximately 90 kilometers (56 miles) north of Hamburg. According to Sigi Ziering, they left Kiel on April 11, 1945. It took 4 days to get to Kiel. Along the way, they encountered heavy bombing.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3750.0,3780.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/252","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the war, the city of Kiel was a major naval base and shipbuilding center, which used slave labor from the Kiel-Hassee camp that was established there in the summer of 1944. Little is known about the camp, except that it was a satellite camp of Neuengamme concentration camp. According to Sigi Ziering, it was a brutal labor camp, where the death rate soared as prisoners were forced to carry heavy parts through a swamp to the train station, while maintaining a very fast pace.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3780.0,3810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/253","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the war, the city of Kiel was a major naval base and shipbuilding center, which used slave labor from the Kiel-Hassee camp that was established there in the summer of 1944. Little is known about the camp, except that it was a satellite camp of Neuengamme concentration camp. According to Sigi Ziering, it was a brutal labor camp, where the death rate soared as prisoners were forced to carry heavy parts through a swamp to the train station, while maintaining a very fast pace.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3780.0,3810.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/254","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter they occupied Warsaw, Poland, the Germans shoved an estimated 400,000 Jews into a small, walled off ghetto in October 1940. The conditions in the ghetto were harsh and nearly 100,000 Jews died of starvation and disease between 1940 and mid-1942. Mass deportations began in the summer of 1942 and again in January 1943. By then, most of the Jews knew what had happened to those deported before them and the Warsaw ghetto uprising began. Resistance held out until April of 1943, when the final liquidation of the ghetto began. By May, the ghetto was in ruins. Approximately 42,000 Warsaw ghetto survivors were sent to labor or concentration camps. At least 7,000 died fighting or in hiding in the ghetto, while another 7,000 were sent to the Treblinka killing center. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Jews escaped from the ghetto, while a handful actually survived in the rubble of the destroyed ghetto until the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4200.0,4230.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/255","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEduard Roschmann, an SS officer, became Kommandant of the Riga ghetto in January 1943. Frederick Forsyth portrayed Roschmann as the “Butcher of Riga” in his 1972 novel, The Odessa File. Although survivors vary in their accounts of his behavior, many prisoners were tortured and murdered under his command. In 1945, he was arrested by the Allies but disguised himself as a regular prisoner of war and was released. The British later identified and arrested him, but Roschmann escaped and fled to Italy and then South America. While living in Argentina in 1976, the West German government charged him with murder and severe violations of human rights in connection with the killing of at least 3,000 Jews between 1938 and 1945. Roschmann fled to Paraguay to avoid extradition and died there in 1977.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4260.0,4290.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/256","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eKommandant\u003c/em\u003e [German: commander] was the highest commanding position within the SS service of a concentration camp.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4290.0,4320.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/257","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKurt Krause, an SS officer and former policeman from Berlin, assumed command of the Riga ghetto in December 1941. Survivors describe him as being particularly sadistic and thousands were murdered under his command. After leaving his post as Kommandant of the Riga ghetto in January 1943, he assumed a post at the nearby Salaspils concentration camp. As the war came to an end, Soviet partisans are said to have captured and murdered Krause.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4320.0,4350.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/258","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFrom the air, one of the buildings of Fuhlsbuttel Prison is in the shape of a cross. Next to that building, five other buildings converge on a central courtyard, distinctly appearing like a star from the air.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4380.0,4410.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/259","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAmerican and British forces occupied the city of Kiel on May 5, 1945—just 3 days after Sophie had been evacuated. The war in Europe officially ended on May 7, 1945 when German General Alfred Jodl signed an unconditional surrender to the Allies in Reims, France. The following day, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel officially surrendered to Soviet forces in Berlin.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4410.0,4440.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/260","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter a series of negotiations with Heinrich Himmler, the Swedish Red Cross received permission to transport prisoners from concentration camps that had not yet been liberated by the advancing Allies. Originally, the Swedish Red Cross was only able to secure the release of Scandinavian prisoners in concentration camps. However, as the Allies continued to push into Germany in April 1945, Himmler became increasingly desperate. Hoping to negotiate his own surrender in the most favorable terms possible, he eventually allowed citizens of other countries to be evacuated and even agreed to include Jewish prisoners. Between mid-March and the beginning of May 1945, 15,345 prisoners were collected on buses painted white with red crosses and transported to Sweden. Many of the evacuees were brought to a holding center at the Neuengamme concentration camp before they were transferred across the German border to Padborg, Denmark and on to neutral Sweden—most via bus or train and then ferry, but some by boat.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4440.0,4470.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/261","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eCopenhagen [Danish: København] is the capital and most populated city in Denmark. It is situated on the eastern coast of Zealand, an island in the North Sea, just 28 kilometers (17 miles) northwest of Malmo, Sweden.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4530.0,4560.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/262","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eCount Folke Bernadotte (1895-1948) was a Swedish diplomat and nobleman, who served as vice-president of the Swedish Red Cross during World War II. During the final months of the war, he supervised an operation to rescue concentration camp inmates in areas under Nazi control. Bernadotte was killed in Jerusalem in 1948, while serving the United Nations as a mediator in the Arab-Israeli conflict.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4560.0,4590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/263","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHeinrich Himmler was the Reich Leader (Reichsführer) of the dreaded SS of the Nazi party from 1929 until 1945. Himmler presided over a vast ideological and bureaucratic empire that defined him for many, both inside and outside the Third Reich, as the second most powerful man in Germany during World War II. Himmler was the key and senior Nazi official responsible for conceiving, and overseeing implementation of the so-called “Final Solution,” the Nazi plan to murder the Jews of Europe.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4560.0,4590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/264","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIf Sophie left Germany on May 1, 1945, she was part of the very last transport to make it to Sweden. According to an official report published by the Swedish Red Cross in 2000, the last transport evacuated on the “White Buses” left from Ravensbrück concentration camp on April 25, 1945. The Swedish Red Cross has no record of a transport from Kiel. Nonetheless, a train arrived at the Padborg station on the Danish border on May 2, 1945 carrying 2,800 mostly Polish women. The Swedish Red Cross had not negotiated the release of these prisoners and did not expect the transport. Therefore, these prisoners are not included in the official count of 15,345 prisoners rescued by the Swedish Red Cross. Their report suggests the prisoners were from work camps around Hamburg and had probably been sent on the orders of the Kommandant. It is not clear why the prisoners were sent or whom the buses that carried the prisoners to the Danish border belonged. Sigi Ziering, another Riga survivor who had also been sent to Libau, Hamburg, and Kiel, recounts a similar story as Sophie. He recalls the guards and Kommandant shepherding the prisoners from Kiel into buses with red crosses, which drove to the Danish border on May 1. He recalls arriving in Copenhagen on May 2 and then being sent by ferry to Sweden, where they were warmly welcomed. According to Sophie’s recollection, they arrived in Malmo, Sweden on a Friday, which would have been May 4, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4560.0,4590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/265","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAfter liberation, camp survivors faced a long and difficult road to recovery. Eating foods that were too rich or complex for survivors’ bodies to handle could exasperate years of malnutrition and starvation, resulting in sickness or death.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4560.0,4590.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/266","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eMalmo [Swedish: Malmö] is a city in southern Sweden on the North Sea. It is the third largest city in Sweden and, together with Copenhagen, the most densely populated area in Scandinavia.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4620.0,4650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/267","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePurim\u003c/em\u003e is a Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Jewish people in the ancient Persian Empire from destruction in the wake of a plot by Haman. According to the Biblical \u003cem\u003eBook of Esther\u003c/em\u003e, Haman planned to kill all the Jews, but his plans were foiled. The day of deliverance became a day of feasting and rejoicing. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4620.0,4650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/268","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe actually holiday was \u003cem\u003eLag B’Omer\u003c/em\u003e, which is a minor holiday that occurs on the 33rd day of the Omer, the 49-day period between Passover and \u003cem\u003eShavuot\u003c/em\u003e. A break from the semi-mourning of the Omer, key aspects of \u003cem\u003eLag B’omer\u003c/em\u003e include holding Jewish weddings (it’s the one day during the Omer when Jewish law permits them), lighting bonfires and getting haircuts. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4620.0,4650.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/269","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC or \"Joint\") is a worldwide Jewish relief organization. It was established in 1914 to help support the Jewish populations of Eastern Europe and the near east during World War I. Prior to World War II, the JDC provided emergency aid for stranded refugees and worked to secure travel documents for those able to emigrate the rising tide of antisemitism in Germany. Once the United States entered the war, the JDC continued to channel aid to Jews living in desperate conditions under the shroud of Nazism. After the war, the JDC—working together with the Jewish Agency for Palestine, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), and other organizations—became the central Jewish agency providing support and financial assistance to Jewish survivors.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4740.0,4770.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/270","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eFritz Moritz Warburg (1879–1962) was the youngest son of a prominent, philanthropic banking family in Germany and later in the United States. He married his distant cousin from Sweden, Anna Beata Warburg, in 1908 and had three daughters. During World War I, he served in Stockholm, Sweden as a commercial attaché of the German government. He returned to Hamburg after the war and became a partner in the family firm. In 1938, the Nazi party arrested him. Upon his release, he immigrated to Stockholm and became a Swedish citizen.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4800.0,4830.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/271","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eEva A. Warburg was the middle daughter of Fritz and Anna Beata Warburg. She was born in 1912 in Hamburg, Germany. She probably moved to Sweden when her parents immigrated there in 1938. In 1946, she married Naftali Unger.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4860.0,4890.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/272","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eAn “Affidavit of Support and Sponsorship” was among the criteria applicants seeking an entry visa into the United States during the 1930’s and 1940’s must meet. This required two sponsors, who were US citizens or had permanent resident status. Sponsors had to provide proof of their financial status (Federal tax returns and an affidavit from their bank and employer) to ensure that the immigrants would not become dependent upon social welfare programs. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4980.0,5010.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/273","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eSophie, Emmi, and Thea Nathan are listed on the passenger manifest of the SS Drottningholm, which set sail from Gothenburg, Sweden on March 26, 1946. The family arrived in New York City, New York on April 8, 1946.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5040.0,5070.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/274","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eDuring bombing raids, the Allies would first identify the target area for the bombers by dropping magnesium flares, called target indicators. Target indicators were available in various colors—including red, yellow, and green—and could be fused for both air and ground burst. They were attached to parachutes and fell slowly, illuminating everything below. When detonated in the air, the green glow they often emanated resembled upside down fir trees. The German population thus referred to target indicators as “Christmas trees.”\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5070.0,5100.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/275","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Prussian \u003cem\u003eEiserne Kreuz\u003c/em\u003e [German: Iron Cross] was first awarded during the Napoleonic Wars in 1813. It was a standard medal awarded in various classes to soldiers during World War I. Wearing the Iron Cross represented service and valor. \u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5160.0,5190.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/276","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eThe Society of Survivors of the Riga Ghetto, Inc. was established in 1971 in New York City, New York.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5250.0,5280.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/277","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eIn 1952, the government of West Germany reached an agreement with the state of Israel and the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany to pay reparations for material losses and injuries incurred during the Holocaust. Three separate German laws, known as the West German Federal Indemnification Laws, were adopted in 1953, 1956, and 1965. They further provided for compensation in the form of one-time payments and monthly pensions to Holocaust survivors. In the years since, other agreements for reparations have also been reached.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5310.0,5340.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/278","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eHolocaust is an American television miniseries broadcast in four parts in April 1978 on the NBC television network. The miniseries followed a fictional German Jewish family’s experiences during the Holocaust.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5490.0,5520.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/annotation_set/198/annotation/279","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":{"type":"TextualBody","value":"\u003cp\u003eKiev was the capital of Ukraine when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Over 160,000, or 20 percent, of the city’s population was Jewish. Nearly 100,000 Jews had fled Kiev by the time German forces entered the city on September 19, 1941. The 60,000 who remained were killed in a series of massacres carried out by the Germans and their auxiliaries over the next few months. The most notorious massacre began on September 29, 1941. Over the course of two days, 33,771 Jews were killed in a ravine near Kiev called “Babi Yar”, in what was one of the largest mass murders at an individual location during World War II.\u003c/p\u003e","format":"text/plain"},"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=5490.0,5520.0"}]},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278","type":"AnnotationPage","label":{"en":["Nathan, Sophie [Index]"]},"items":[{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/280","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Growing Up and Background Before World War II","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=18.0,367.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/281","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Your date of birth?","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Partial Transcript"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=18.0,367.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/282","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Adolf Hitler","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Anti-Semitism","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Catholic","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Children's Nurse","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Cologne","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Conservative Judaism","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Emmerich, Germany","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Kosher","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Liberation","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=18.0,367.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/283","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Deteriorating Jewish Conditions in Germany","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=367.0,777.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/284","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"If you could, as much as you can remember, give us a sequence of events as things got worse for Jews. In other words, from the time when you felt that you were not discriminated against. 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Were there people who would turn against you?","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Partial Transcript"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3362.0,3533.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/318","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"German Jewish Police","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Riga Ghetto","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3362.0,3533.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/319","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Religious Beliefs Before and After Liberation","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3533.0,3692.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/320","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"While you were in the camp, did your religious beliefs change in any  way?","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Partial Transcript"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3533.0,3692.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/321","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Religious Beliefs","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3533.0,3692.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/322","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Moving from Riga to Libau Concentration Camp","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3692.0,3755.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/323","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"I don't know, because as the Russians came closer, from Riga we went to Libau and stayed there until February of 1945. 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Kiel was on the Baltic Sea.","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Partial Transcript"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3755.0,4063.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/327","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Hamburg, Germany","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Horrible Conditions","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}},{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Kiel, Germany","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Keywords"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=3755.0,4063.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/328","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"Worst Experiences in World War II","format":"text/plain","label":{"en":["Title"]}}],"target":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549#t=4063.0,4183.0"},{"id":"https://thebreman.aviaryplatform.com/collections/994/collection_resources/30584/file/98549/index/47278/annotation/329","type":"Annotation","motivation":"supplementing","body":[{"type":"TextualBody","value":"What was your worst experience during the war? 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Eduard Roschmann. You knew of him. 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